Latin & Caribbean on Music Theory Print

Afoxê

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Afoxé in Afro-Brazilian Carnival#

The annual Carnival that takes place in several cities of Brazil is considered the country’s largest public festival. Specifically, Carnival in Bahia Salvador is the birthplace of several groups from the Afro-Brazilian tradition, afoxé, which relates to Afro-Brazilian Carnival traditions linked to the Candomblé religion. The term “Afro” is utilised with reference to a phenomenon originating in Africa but developed in Brazil. Rather than celebrating the sacred Candomblé religion privately, the afoxé Carnival traditions are a public affirmation of the religion, which is openly displayed on the streets in a Carnival context. Carnival plays a fundamental role in defining black identities in the context of the larger society. In Brazil, Carnival is a moment when the racial heritage of Brazil as well as its hybrid cultural traditions is continually presented.

African reggae

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

The popularity of Reggae in Africa started with the spread of music by Jamaican artists like Bob Marley and Jimmy Cliff in the late 1960s and 1970s. While their music was popular around the world, it was particularly well-received in Africa. More groups followed suit, and reggae was one of the most popular genres of music in the late 1970s in Africa. In Freetown, Sierra Leone, John Nunley said that reggae was all over the urban soundscape.

Afro (genre)

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Influence#

According to George Torres, “the infectious rhythm of the Afro was used by American artists” such as Duke Ellington and Chuck Berry (in his song “Havana Moon”).

Notable examples#

The following afro compositions are often cited as the most representative of the genre. *“Babalú” (Margarita Lecuona) *“Tabú” (Margarita Lecuona) *“Bruca maniguá” (Arsenio Rodríguez) *“Drume negrita” (Ernesto Grenet) *“Drumi mobila” (Bola de Nieve) *“Ogguere” (Gilberto Valdés) *“Lacho” (Facundo Rivero) *“La culebra” (Obdulio Morales) *“Mata siguaraya” (Tío Tom) *“Rinkinkalla” (Juan Bruno Tarraza)

Afro-Brazilian music

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Musicians#

There are many artists that influenced the Afro-Brazilian music and culture. Gilberto Gil is one of the most well-known Afro-Brazilian artists, not only because of his award-winning music, but also because of his political activism. In his career, he won two Grammys in the Best World Music Album category and received seven Grammy nominations. Other popular artists and groups include Pixinguinha, Abigail Moura, Nei Lopes, Agnaldo Timóteo, Racionais MC’s and many more. These artists play many different genres including, but not limited to, samba, rap, jazz, rock, funk, reggae, and disco. Afro-Brazilian music was influenced by African instruments, rhythms, cultures, and beliefs that are still present in the day-to-day culture of Brazil.

Afro-Cuban jazz

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

“Spanish tinge”—the Cuban influence in early jazz#

Although clave-based Afro-Cuban jazz did not appear until the mid-20th century, the Cuban influence was present at the birth of jazz. African-American music began incorporating Afro-Cuban musical motifs in the 19th century when the habanera gained international popularity. The habanera was the first written music to be rhythmically based on an African motif. The habanera rhythm (also known as “congo” can be thought of as a combination of tresillo and the backbeat. Musicians from Havana and New Orleans took the twice-daily ferry between both cities to perform, and the habanera took root. John Storm Roberts states that the musical genre habanera “reached the U.S. 20 years before the first rag was published”. For more than a quarter-century in which the cakewalk, ragtime, and jazz were forming, the habanera was a consistent part of African-American popular music. “St. Louis Blues” (1914) by W. C. Handy has a habanera/tresillo bass line. The first measures are shown below. Handy noted a reaction to the habanera rhythm included in Will H. Tyler’s “Maori”: “I observed that there was a sudden, proud and graceful reaction to the rhythm…White dancers, as I had observed them, took the number in stride. I began to suspect that there was something Negroid in that beat.” After noting a similar reaction to the same rhythm in “La Paloma”, Handy included this rhythm in his “St. Louis Blues,” the instrumental copy of “Memphis Blues,” the chorus of “Beale Street Blues,” and other compositions." Jelly Roll Morton considered the tresillo/habanera (which he called the Spanish tinge) to be an essential ingredient of jazz. Morton stated, “Now in one of my earliest tunes, ‘New Orleans Blues’, you can notice the Spanish tinge. In fact, if you can’t manage to put tinges of Spanish in your tunes, you will never be able to get the right seasoning, I call it, for jazz—Morton (1938: Library of Congress Recording).” An excerpt of “New Orleans Blues” is shown below. In the excerpt, the left hand plays the tresillo rhythm, while the right hand plays variations on cinquillo. Although the origin of jazz syncopation may never be known, there’s evidence that the habanera/tresillo existed at its conception. Buddy Bolden, the first known jazz musician, is credited with creating the big four, a habanera-based pattern. The big four (below) was the first syncopated bass drum pattern to deviate from the standard on-the-beat march. As the example below shows, the second half of the big four pattern is the habanera rhythm. In Early Jazz: Its Roots and Musical Development, Gunther Schuller states, The Cuban influence is evident in many pre-1940s jazz tunes, but rhythmically they are all based on single-celled motifs such as tresillo, and do not contain an overt two-celled, clave-based structure. “Caravan”, written by Juan Tizol and first performed in 1936, is an example of an early pre-Latin jazz composition. It is not clave-based. On the other hand, jazzy renditions of Don Azpiazú’s “The Peanut Vendor” (“El manicero”) by Louis Armstrong (1930), Duke Ellington (1931), and Stan Kenton (1948), are all firmly in-clave since the 2-3 guajeo provides the primary counterpoint to the melody throughout the entire song.

Alternative reggaeton

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

The precursor is arguably one of the founding fathers of reggaeton: Vico C, whose albums relied heavily on hip-hop acoustics, keyboards, and reggae roots. Xplosión (1993), Aquel Que Había Muerto (1998) and Desahogo (2005) are good examples.

Rise of a new sound#

The starting point of alternative reggaeton per se is considered by many to be the album El Abayarde, the 2002 debut of Tego Calderón. The blend of Puerto Rican folk music, known as bomba y plena, two Afro-Puerto Rican genres and steady beats of hip hop and classical reggaeton served as a base for the new variant. The album became a major success, launching the underground status of Calderón to the pinnacle of the Spanish-speaking MC’s.

Arrocha

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

In 2004, arrocha began gaining ground in many radio stations in Bahia. Some artists have helped spread arrocha and are now nationally recognized: Júlio Nascimento, Tayrone Cigano, Nara Costta, Asas Livres, Pablo, Grupo Arrocha, Márcio Moreno, Nano do Arrocha, Silvanno Salles, Ciel Rodrigues, Nara Costa, and Tatal Matos, considered “Queen of Arrocha,”. The lyrics have much in common with Brega, with the addition of keyboard sounds and electronic beats, and the rhythm is very successful especially in the regions North and Northeast. The term “arrocha” is recent, but the music itself has existed since the mid-1970s, when admirers of Odair José, Reginaldo Rossi, Fernando Mendes and Waldick Soriano began to sing the songs of their idols in bars and nightclubs in suburban areas or inland in the country. After some years, although still remain strong, the pace was being forgotten by the media in general. In the late ’90s, the music business entrepreneurs realize their great popular appeal in a big profit opportunity, and from there came the first idol, since 2000, called Lairton, nicknamed “Lairton and their keyboards,” which became known with the song “Strawberry Northeast”. With the simplification of systems and manufacturing mix CDs, several smaller groups have emerged, which helped spread the “movement”. However, despite the success in the poorest, arrocha still faces a lot of prejudice among the middle class, which simply does not consider it a genre because of their compositions that constantly portray the love life problems. Many singers singing arrocha stood out, as Sandra Cristina, Grupo Belo Ser, Tayrone Cigano, Roberto Bessa, Nara Costa, Silvano Salles, Márcio Moreno, Asas Livres, Grupo Arrocha, Tatal Matos, Trem Xônado, Toque Novo, Latitude 10, Bonde do Maluco, Léo Magalhães, Ninjas do Arrocha, Kuarto de Empregada, Ardente Paixão, Saulo Calmon, Pablo a voz Romântica, Nano do Arrocha, Paula e a Mulherada, Trio da Huanna, among others. Today Arrocha is widely known and popular in Brazil thanks to the new sertanejo generation adding an arrocha style to the music known as Sertanejo Arrocha or Arrocha Universitário. In the late 2010s and early 2020s, arrocha spread to the United States when the Internet Bad Boys released several arrocha-inspired songs.

Avanzada Regia

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Origins#

In 1995, the group Zurdok Movimiento won the Battle of the Bands at the Rockotitlan music festival, becoming the first band not from Mexico City to win it, thus creating such expectations towards the city that the record labels began to move there to search for groups. La Ultima de Lucas, made up of young people all under twenty years old, but which had talented musicians in its lineup, was the first band from Monterrey to sign a record contract. The Hispanic American phenomenon of Control Machete was followed by, by way of a domino effect, more bands. Zurdok Movimiento (who started it all) were finally signed by Discos Manicomio, an imprint of PolyGram, as well as the rapcore group called La Flor de Lingo.

Axé

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Roots and history#

Numerous different African cultures were brought to Brazil due to slavery, which lead to the creation of the vibrancy and complexity of Brazil and its culture. Therefore, several of Brazil’s popular music styles have derived from African cultures and African diasporic influences, including samba, lambada, funk and axé. There is a tendency by Brazilian musicians to draw inspiration and utilize themes, imagery and symbolic symbols from the Candomblé religion and its African roots. Groups such as Timbalada, Olodum and Filhos de Gandhi also shared the heavy beats and rhythms with Ilê Aiyê, as well as utilizing African symbols such as typical outfits and instruments that all these bands use to perform. Olodum’s rehearsals soon became a starting point for up and coming artists, composers, and music. In these rehearsals, artists presented and experimented with their music, in search for legitimacy from the population. As axé has developed over time, all axé ensembles have had one thing in common: structure. Axé music ensembles usually consist of a lead singer, backup singers, an electric guitar, bass, drum set, keyboards, a percussion section, and sometimes even a horn section. As expressed in the earlier parts of this section, a driving beat, which carries out the dancing aspect of the music, also brings with it lyrics that invite those from mass who want to join these carnival parades. Used as a template of originality in the mid 1980s, axé didn’t completely come together until there was a mix of music genres developed by Bahian musicians. For example, samba-reggae, the local rhythm of Salvador’s blocos Afro was a prominent example of this combination. The blocos Afro group was formed to oppose prejudice that struck many poor dark-skinned people from several carnival clubs in Salvador in the 1970s. Opposing this prejudice, the signature music style of the blocos Afro gave a valuable meaning to axé and how it is shaped today. Another example is in 1985, Luiz Caldas released his LP record called Magia, which included the track Fricote. Although the lyrics were not complex, the rhythm was perfect for the climate in Bahia. The song became the representation of the entertainment of Bahia’s musicality.

Baião (music)

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Description#

Amerindian elements include the use of flutes, later replaced by the accordion, and wooden Shaker; African-influenced baião might be accompanied by atabaque drums and include overlapping call and response singing; and European influences include the use of the triangle, Western harmony, and dance music such as the quadrille, polka, mazurka, and schottische, heavy influences to forró, a dance-oriented variant. Repente music uses the baião rhythm in the context of acoustic guitar-centric vocal music, featuring the singing of improvised or pre-written lyrics in a specific meter and sometimes accompanied by the baião-style accordion and rhythm section. Some instances were accompanied by European-style orchestras. According to Guerra Peixe, baião mostly borrows harmonically from European music tradition and uses the minor mode and the major scale (Ionian mode), Mixolydian, Lydian and Dorian modes, and the first, second, fourth and fifth scale degrees in chord progressions. The supertonic frequently appears with an augmented fourth. It is notated in duple meter (2/4 time) and most frequently uses eighth notes, quarter notes, half notes, and dotted whole notes.

Baithak Gana

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Instruments#

In basic Baithak Gana there are three instruments, harmonium, dholak and the dhantal. The harmonium is a free-standing keyboard instrument similar to a reed organ. The dholak is a double headed drum that originated in Northern India, however, it is still used in the folk songs from Pakistan or Nepal. The last instrument that is used in this style of music is the dhantal which serves as the rhythmic piece of the ensemble, it consists of a long steel rod which is then “struck” by a U-formed piece, the origin of this device is unclear, as it may have been brought by the Indian indentured-laborers. The origin of the dhantal was formed from the use of a long steel rod with an almost-enclosed circle tip at the end used in the yoke of bull-driven carts that were used to transport sugar cane to guide the bulls. The U-shaped handle piece was derived from the use of a horse shoe.

Banda music

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Traditional ensembles#

Brass instruments in the state of Oaxaca of European origin that date back to the 1850s have been found. The repertoire of the bands of Morelos, Guerrero, Oaxaca, Chiapas and Michoacán covered gustos, sones, vinuetes, funeral pieces, marches, danzones, valses, corridos, paso dobles, polkas, rancheras, alabanzas, and foxes. Traditional bands that play Yucatecan Jarana are instrumented with clarinet, tenor saxophone, baritone saxophone, trumpet, trombone, timbales, snare drum, bass drum, cymbals, and güiro. Traditional Oaxacan bands use a mix of tuba, saxophones and clarinets, fewer trumpets and more tenor trombones, and the bass drum and cymbals are played separately. One of the oldest bands recorded in history is the Banda de Tlayacapan of the state of Morelos, founded approximately in 1870 and being one of the first to play la danza del Chinelo. Traditional Zacatecan tamborazo bands do not use tuba, the tambora taking the bass voice instead.

Biguine

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

Two main types of French antillean biguine can be identified based on the instrumentation in contemporary musical practice, called the drum biguine and the orchestrated biguine. Each of these refers to characteristics of a specific origin. The drum biguine, or bidgin bèlè in Creole, comes from a series of bèlè dances performed since early colonial times by the slaves who inhabited the great sugar plantations. Musically, the bidgin bèlè can be distinguished from the orchestrated biguine in the following ways: its instrumentation (cylindrical single-membraned drum (bèlè) and the rhythm sticks (tibwa); the call-and-response singing style; the soloist’s improvisation, and the nasal voice quality. According to a study by Rosemain (1988), the biguine figured in fertility rituals practiced in West Africa, but its ritual significance has since disappeared in Martinique.

Bolero

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Origins#

In Cuba, the bolero was perhaps the first great Cuban musical and vocal synthesis to win universal recognition. In time, this dance music spread to other countries, leaving behind what Ed Morales has called the “most popular lyric tradition in Latin America.” The Cuban bolero tradition originated in Santiago de Cuba in the last quarter of the 19th century; it does not owe its origin to the Spanish music and song of the same name. In the 19th century there grew up in Santiago de Cuba a group of itinerant musicians who moved around earning their living by singing and playing the guitar. Pepe Sanchez is known as the father of the trova style and the creator of the Cuban bolero. Untrained, but with remarkable natural talent, he composed numbers in his head and never wrote them down. As a result, most of these numbers are now lost, but two dozen or so survive because friends and students wrote them down. He was the model and teacher for the great trovadores who followed.

Bossa nova

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Etymology#

In Brazil, the word is old-fashioned slang for something done with particular charm, natural flair or innate ability. As early as 1932, Noel Rosa used the word in a samba: (Samba, readiness and other are our things, are things from us.) The phrase , translated literally, means “new trend” or “new wave” in Portuguese. The exact origin of the term remained unclear for many decades, according to some authors. Within the artistic beach culture of the late 1950s in Rio de Janeiro, the term was used to refer to any new “trend” or “fashionable wave”. In his book Bossa Nova, Brazilian author Ruy Castro asserts that was already in use in the 1950s by musicians as a word to characterize someone’s knack for playing or singing idiosyncratically. That group consisted of Sylvia Telles, Carlos Lyra, Nara Leão, Luiz Eça, Roberto Menescal, and others. Mr Fuks’s description, fully supported by most of the bossa nova members, simply read (“Today. Sylvia Telles and a ‘Bossa Nova’ group”), since Sylvia Telles was the most famous musician in the group at that time. In 1959, Nara Leão also participated in more than one embryonic display of bossa nova. These include the 1st Festival de Samba Session, conducted by the student union of . This session was chaired by Carlos Diegues (later a prominent Cinema Novo film director), a law student whom Leão ultimately married.

Bouyon soca

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

The nineties in Dominica have been dominated by a new musical form called bouyon music. The best-known band in the genre is Windward Caribbean Kulture (WCK), who originated the style in 1988 by experimenting with a fusion of Cadence-lypso and Jing ping. They began using native drum rhythms such as lapo kabwit and elements of the music of jing ping bands, as well as ragga-style vocals. From a language perspective, Bouyon draws on English and Dominican Creole French with influences from the chanté mas tradition. Bouyon involves chanting rather than singing and is very much influenced by dancehall-reggae-rap language style, coming out of Jamaica. Bouyon-muffin and reketeng is an offshoot of this tendency. While bouyon lyrics comment on everyday life in the cultural sense, they can also contain explicit social commentary in the political sense.

Brazilian gaucho music

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

In the 19th century, in the north of the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, the tropeiros, men who led the cattle troops, often created music for fun, to sing while they stumbled, they were songs with simple lyrics, but with time, and the arrival of the accordion in Brazil, these songs gained their own dances. Today, they are gaúcho folkloric songs and dances, as there is no record of the composers of the songs and the creators of the dances. With the emergence of the Farroupilha Revolution, also known as the Farrapos War, these dances ended up being forgotten for years, receiving only a brief revival in late nineteenth century’s parties. In 1940, the folklorist João Carlos D’avila Paixão Cõrtes, better known as Paixão Côrtes, Gathered a group of friends to rescue these songs and dances, and through a lot of work, they got many answers from elderly people. In 1943, the first song from Rio Grande do Sul was recorded: it is called “Adeus Mariana”, performed by singer and composer Pedro Raymundo, and was inspired by country music. In 1948, after further research, Paixão Côrtes and his friends created the first Centro de Tradições Gaúchas (known throughout Brazil through the acronym “CTG”), where people gather for traditional events, involving music and dance. At this point many folk songs were rescued, and in 1950, the first folk music from Rio Grande do Sul was recorded, “Rancheira de Carreirinha”, recorded by Ivan Lessa. Each folk song has its dance, as they were forgotten for years, when they were rescued by Paixão Cõrtes and his friends, many dances needed to receive small modifications to help people memorize the steps. In 1958 with the foundation of CTG Rincão Serrano in Carazinho RS, these customs were already very popular in the state of Rio Grande do Sul and it was already arriving in the state of Santa Catarina, not only music and dance, but also clothing, as well. like the gaucho of Uruguay, the clothing of the gaucho of Brazil is similar, Bombacha (Pants), boots, scarf around the neck, hat and on cold days, the use of the poncho or the visor are two similar garments that are suitable for winter . The songs of the gaucho music present themes from the gaucho folk traditions, such as: countryside, farm, horse, moral values and regional cuisine. Some songs are built in a slow way, others in a more agitated way, always following the familiar rhythms, Xote, Valsa and Milonga are slow rhythms, Chamamé, Vaneira and Bugio are more agitated. Having the influence of folk music, by singer Pedro Raymundo, and the duo Irmãos Bertussi, several gaúcho artists emerged singing their own songs in the same style. Gaucho music follows various rhythms, Waltz, Tango, Rancheira, Vaneira, Chamamé, Xote, and the only rhythm created in Rio Grande do Sul, the Bugio. The folk songs also follow these rhythms, the “Xote Carreirinho” as the title says, is in the rhythm of Xote, the “Pezinho” is in the Ritmo de Valsa and the “Rancheira de Carreirinha” is a Rancheira as the title itself it says. Gaucho music became popular worldwide in 1960 as singer and composer Teixeirinha, born in Rolante, Rio Grande do Sul, Teixeirinha released the song “Coração de Luto” in 1959, the song talks about his childhood, in 1960 it sold 1 million of copies in South America and Portugal, until 1965 it had sold 3 million copies throughout America, Europe and some countries in Africa and Asia. Today Teixeirinha is considered the greatest singer from Rio Grande do Sul and regionalist, with more than 130 million albums sold worldwide. Gaucho music stands out a lot in ballads, where two or more singers get together and sing rhymed verses in the improvisation, attacking each other, a musical fight made to amuse the people, two singers stand out in the gaucho trova, Gildo de Freitas and José Portella Delavy, Gildo de Freitas is considered the King of the Troubadours, and Delavy is considered the Master of the Troubadours. Currently, a great grandson of Delavy named Samuel Delavy is pursuing a career in Rock. In addition to Teixeirinha, Gildo de Freitas and José Portella Delavy, other great artists and bands stand out such as Baitaca, Porca Véia, Os Bertussi (band created by the Bertussi Brothers after their success as a duo), Mano Lima, Mary Terezinha, Berenice Azambuja, Shana Muller and others. Some of the musical instruments used in the genre are accordion, guitar, violin and bombo legüero.

Brazilian rock

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

1950s#

In 1957, the first original Brazilian rock and roll song, Rock and roll em Copacabana, was penned by Miguel Gustavo. This pioneering track was recorded by the singer Cauby Peixoto and rose to #52 on the charts that year. During this period, several bands performed songs that were rough translations of English lyrics, though several groups chose to focus on instrumental rock instead. This was in part inspired by instrumental bands such as Duane Eddy and The Champs. In 1958, this inspiration led to the release of the first Brazilian instrumental rock song, “Here’s the Blue Jean Rockers” by The Blue Jean Rockers pt . Later the same year, Bolão & His Rockettes went on to record the country’s first purely instrumental LP. These developments were crucial in establishing rock as a popular genre among Brazilian youth. Following these pioneering efforts, a wave of new bands emerged, including The Avalons, The Clevers pt , The Rebels, The Jordans pt , The Jet Blacks, The Pops, Os Populares, The Bells, The Lions, and The Youngs, further solidifying rock’s place in Brazilian music culture. 1958 marked a watershed moment for Brazilian rock, witnessing the meteoric rise of several artists and bands. Notable figures such as Nora Ney, Nick Savoia, Celly Campelo, Tony Campelo (Celly Campelo’s brother), , , Cinderella, Regiane, Ronnie Cord, and Hamilton di Giorgio achieved rapid success, establishing themselves as prominent names in the music scene virtually overnight. Additionally, instrumental groups such as the aforementioned Avalons, Tte Rebels, the Jordans, and Os Incríveis also gained widespread popularity, contributing to the vibrant and diverse landscape of Brazilian rock during this pivotal year.

Brazilian thrash metal

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

1980s#

During the early 80s, bands from the United States, Germany and Canada, such as Metallica and Slayer (U.S.), Destruction and Kreator (Germany), and Voivod and Exciter (Canada) appeared. During this time, Brazil experienced a shift from dictatorship to democracy, while also facing economic instability. At the same time, Brazil had a growing metal and rock scene and was influenced by the same music subgenres as their European and North American counterparts: New Wave of British Heavy Metal (NWOBHM) and hardcore punk. Brazilian rock has its roots in the 1960s, developing from the movement called Jovem Guarda, which evolved into progressive rock and heavy metal. In 1982, the first Brazilian heavy metal LP was released by the band Stress, who is from the northern city Belém. The European and North American heavy metal and hardcore scenes influenced a majority of Brazilian bands, The first thrash metal (or speed metal) album released officially in Brazil in 1984 was a split album between two bands called Ultimatum, by Dorsal Atlântica and Metalmorphose. The album came out around the same time as Kill ‘Em All by Metallica, War and Pain by Voivod, and Sentence of Death by Destruction. In the late 1980s, Sepultura achieved success outside of Brazil. The last thrash metal albums to represent the “old-school” style of thrash in Brazil were Mass Illusion by Korzus (1991), Arise by Sepultura (1991), Rotten Authorities by Executer (1991), and The Laws of Scourge by Sarcófago (1991).

Brega (music)

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Etymology#

There are several hypotheses regarding the origin of the word brega as a synonym for brothel and, later, for a musical style. According to Houaiss Dictionary of the Portuguese Language, the term means “bad taste,” “tacky,” or “inferior,” possibly derived from esbregue, an expression used in Rio de Janeiro between the 1920s and 1950s to refer to something poorly made, mediocre, or ordinary. Another theory, defended by etymologists such as Sérgio Nogueira and Amaro Quintas, links brega to xumbrega. This word is believed to have originated in Pernambuco in 1666, stemming from the nickname “Xumbergas” given to the Portuguese colonial administrator Jerônimo de Mendonça Furtado, in reference to the German general Schomberg. As he was fond of alcoholic beverages, the term came to mean “drunkenness,” giving rise to the verbs xumbregar (to get drunk or to bother) and the adjective xumbrega (of bad quality). From this meaning, the term is thought to have evolved in the 20th century to designate brothels, as recorded in dictionaries such as those by Aurélio Ferreira, The term “brega” was historically used pejoratively by the middle and upper classes, associating it with low-income individuals and the brothels of the Northeast, where romantic and dramatic music was common. In the North and Northeast regions, the style remained alive and consolidated as a significant musical force, even though it was ignored by major radio stations and record labels. Local artists continued to produce, often with limited resources, maintaining a loyal audience in urban peripheries. According to UN Tourism, Belém do Pará became the main hub for the consolidation of brega as a style. Initially restricted to dances (called bregões) in peripheral nightclubs, the genre gained regional dimension with aparelhagem parties, which emerged in the outskirts of Belém in the 1940s, using powerful sound systems to animate large dance gatherings.

Brega pop

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Background#

Brega was a term used pejoratively to designate popular romantic music of low quality and with dramatic exaggerations (love disappointments) or naivety; with samba-canção, bolero and jovem-guarda linked to it. The musical origin of “brega” is not known for sure, but singer Vicente Celestino (1894-1968) in the 1930s is considered to be one of the precursors of brega as a dramatic musical genre, followed by: Orlando Dias, Carlos Alberto and Cauby Peixoto. During the 1960s, the romantic music of artists was basically from the lower classes and came to be considered tacky and inelegant. movement - inspired by avant-garde artistic currents and national and foreign pop culture and by traditional manifestations of Brazilian culture and radical aesthetic innovations - and the Iê-iê-iê movement - which led the way for foreign rock’n’roll, giving it a national dressing, and became a major behavioral and fashion phenomenon. And it was the Jovem Guarda that paved the way for new artists who challenged the standards of good taste of the Brazilian middle class in the following decade, who led the band The Silver Jets. Belém do Pará became the main reference in the consolidation of “brega” as a musical style in the country. Initially restricted to circuits of dances and concerts - called “bregões” - in nightclubs on the outskirts of Belém, the scene acquired great regional proportions with the “aparelhagens” (large, powerful professional sound systems) of the big popular parties, attended by thousands of people, usually characterized by music typical of the northern region.

Cachaca (musical genre)

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Etymology#

Although it is a genre derived from cumbia, it receives the of cachaca, as a version of the song Por el amor de Claudia by the Colombian composer Guillermo Buitrago became popular in the 1970s when it was recorded by La Sonora Dinamita. The chorus of the song went: La cachaca tiene un Buey, La cachaca tiene un Buey, La cachaca tiene un Buey, Que lo llaman la Esperanza. The variant spellings “kachaka” and “kchaka” may originate from the 1990s programme “Kchak” presented by Hugo Javier González.

Cadence-lypso

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

Dominican contemporary music, that is the music played by the dance bands from the 1950s, has played a very important role in Dominica national life. Dominica musical landscape has seen many changes in the intervening period from 1950. In the forties and fifties, there were bands such as the Casimir Brothers of Roseau. The Swinging Stars emerged at the end of the fifties. Their music was a dance-oriented version of many kinds of Caribbean and Latin popular music. By the beginning of the 1960s, calypso and Trinidadian steelpan became the most popular styles of music on Dominica, replacing traditional Carnival music like chanté mas and lapo kabwit, particularly in the capital Roseau. Many of the traditional carnival songs were performed in the new calypso beat. Calypsonians and calypso monarch competitions emerged and became extremely popular. It was in the 1960s that the trend towards drawing on original music, traditional music and songs of Dominica began. This was probably best exemplified by the music of the Gaylords and to a lesser extent, De Boys and Dem. Gaylords unleashed a string of hits such as “DouvanJou”, “Ti Mako”, songs in Dominican Creole French as well as powerful nationalist songs in English, as “Lovely Dominica” and “Pray for the Blackman”. These songs were performed to calypso rhythms and later the new reggae beat coming out of Jamaica. Early recording stars from this era included Swinging Busters, The Gaylords, De Boys an Dem and Los Caballeros, while chorale groups also gained fans, especially Lajenne Etwal, Siflé and the Dominica folk singers. These early popular musicians were aided by the spread of radio broadcasting, beginning with WIDBS and later Radio Dominica. The emergence of radio, first WIDBS and later Radio Dominica helped to spread the music. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the influence of rock, soul and funk music from the United States was reflected in Dominican contemporary dance music. New groups originating from mainly the high school student population emerged. Groups such as Every Mother’s Child, Woodenstool and Voltage Four specialized in rock and funk. The Latin-rock music of Carlos Santana and Afro-rock music of Osibisa became powerful influences on our younger bands, and were very popular in the dance halls.

Caipira music

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Etymology#

The name is a reference to the Caipiras, a people. The term “Caipira” comes from the Paulista language, originating from Tupi language. There are several theories about the true origin of the term. * Kai (burnt) + pira (skin) = originally describing sun-darkened skin, a reference to Caipiras Caboclos. * Kaa (jungle) + pora (inhabitant) = inhabitant of the jungle.

History#

At the end of the 1920s, caipira music was recorded for the first time, based on recordings made by the journalist and writer Cornélio Pires of “tales” and fragments of traditional songs from the interior of the state of São Paulo. At the time of these pioneering recordings, whose lyrics evoke the lifestyle of the country man (often in opposition to man’s life in the city) and the bucolic beauty of the landscape and romantic countryside, with emphasized words in daily life and manner of singing). Beyond Cornelio Pires and his “Caipira Gang” stood out in this trend, recording at a later time, the duo Mandi & Sorocabinha, Alvarenga & Ranchinho, and Florencio Torres, Tonico & Tinoco, Vieira & Vieirinha, among others, and popular songs like “Sergio Forero”, by Cornelio Pires, “Bonde Camarão” by Cornelio Pires and Mariano, “Sertão do Laranjinha” by Pires and Ariovaldo and “Cabocla Teresa”, by João Pires and Ariovaldo Pacifico. The introduction of the electric guitar and pop music influences by duo Leo Canhoto e Robertinho in the late 1960s marked the start of Sertanejo music, giving rise to a new subgenre, separating itself from Caipira music and graduating as one of the most popular musical styles in Brazil. During the 1980s, there was a mass commercial exploitation of sertanejo, coupled in some cases, to a rereading of international hits and even the Jovem Guarda’s. Against this trend, names like the duo Pena Branca e Xavantinho reappeared, adapting to the language of MPB success of guitars, and new artists emerged like Almir Sater, a sophisticated guitar player, who moved among the styles of guitar and the blues. In the following decade, a new generation of Caipira artists, including Roberto Correa, Ivan Vilela, Pereira da Viola, and Chico Lobo e Miltinho Edilberto, emerged who were willing to reunite the Caipira traditions.

Canción melódica

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

Canción melódica appeared in the first half of the 20th century. Unlike the cuplé, its 19th century predecessor that was primarily strophic, canción melódica was defined through the emphasis it placed on the chorus. The orchestras with vocalists had a fundamental protagonism in the dance parties, which evolved from the popular verbena to “more refined circles” such as salons and cafés. The melodic compositions were accompanied by popular vocalists that appeared in magazines, films and live performances; “Musicologists describe canción melódica as the explanation for the birth of the singer stars in the 1920s.” Argentine singer Sandro was a popular canción melódica singer during that decade. Canción melódica became frowned upon as “light music” from the 1980s on, with the rise in popularity of other genres such as rock.

Capoeira music

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

In early days, capoeira was accompanied only by the big drum (known as ngoma, conga or atabaque), hand-clapping and singing. Until the mid-nineteenth century, drums were a prominent musical instrument in capoeira. In the early to mid-nineteenth century Rio, capoeira was described by travelers as a war dance with drumbeats or hand clapping. In 1818, João Angola was arrested for possessing a small drum at a capoeira gathering. Playing a drum could lead to severe punishment, like on 5 December 1820, when Mathias Benguela, a slave, received 200 lashes for it. Despite punishment, drumming continued. An illustration from 1824 by Rugendas shows a participant in roda playing a drum. In 1833, the playing of African drums in Rio de Janeiro was prohibited by law. Due to the drum’s size, it couldn’t be concealed, leading to clandestine drumming in remote locations at night. To evade arrest, slaves used makeshift percussion instruments like clay or metal pieces, shells, and stones. In 1859, French journalist Charles Ribeyrolls described the Afro-Brazilian dances on plantations in Rio de Janeiro province, linking the conga drum to capoeira, and the berimbau to batuque: Gerhard Kubik, a 20th century music ethnologist, saw capoeira as a discipline where the drum not only accompanies but also guides and controls the players’ actions. The berimbau belongs to the candomblé tradition. It was not used in capoeira until the 20th century, and first appeared as an instrument accompanying capoeira in the early 20th century in Bahia. The transition may have been influenced not only by musical preferences but also by the berimbau’s dual role as a weapon. Mestre Pastinha formalized the inclusion of instruments into the capoeira Angola orchestra. He experimented with various instruments, occasionally incorporating guitars (viola de corda) and even introducing Spanish castanets into the roda at one point. The current standardized configuration of three berimbaus, two pandeiros, one agogô, one reco-reco, and one atabaque likely did not become established until the 1960s.

Cha-cha-chá (music)

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Origin#

The creation of cha-cha-chá has been traditionally attributed to Cuban composer and violinist Enrique Jorrín, who began his career playing for the charanga band Orquesta América. According to the testimony of Enrique Jorrín, he composed some danzones in which musicians of the orchestra had to sing short refrains, and this style was very successful. In the danzón “Constancia”, he introduced some montunos and the audience was motivated to join in singing the refrains. Jorrín also asked the members of the orchestra to sing in unison so the lyrics might be heard more clearly and achieve a greater impact in the audience. That way of singing also helped to mask the poor singing skills of the orchestra members. In 1948, Jorrín changed the style of a Mexican song by Guty Cárdenas, called “Nunca”, composing a separate part for the trio or montuno of danzón; and in 1951 he composed a signature cha-cha-chá, “La engañadora”. Jorrín noticed that most of the dancers had some trouble with highly syncopated rhythms and therefore he simplified the musical texture of his pieces, using as little syncopation as possible. The novel cha-cha-chá style was born from melodies that were very easy to dance.

Chamarrita

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Azorean Chamarrita#

The chamarrita from the Azores is a dance to a rhythm traditionally played on the fiddle with or without accompaniment. Instruments often include the guitar, harmonica and accordion. Dancers, usually in pairs, wear authentic gaucho clothes reflecting Azorean culture. The dance itself is a lively dance done in a circle. There is a caller who sings out directions to all the dancers. The pairs of dancers gather in opposite rows, approaching and moving away as the music progresses. The following is an example of a Chamaritta verse with the English translation. A moda da Chamarrita Nã tem nada que aprender, E andar comum pé no ar E outro no chão a bater Quero cantar e bailar Com a moça mais bonita Bater o pé no terreiro Dar voltas a Chamarrita The old Chamarrita dance Is really easy to learn Just lift a foot in the air And stamp the other on the floor I want to sing and dance With the prettiest gal Stamp my foot on the ground In a Chamarrita round

Chicano rap

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Origins#

Chicano Rap originated during the late 1980s and early 1990s within Mexican-American communities in Los Angeles and later expanded on to other Chicano communities across the United States. As a result, artists began to create lyrics that shared the stories of the many realities and experiences Chicanos faced throughout the United States. Many Chicano rap songs focused on themes such as discrimination, poverty, gang violence, immigration, police surveillance, barrio life, and cultural pride. Chicano rappers used bilingual lyricism to share stories of the Chicano communities and experiences. (Mcfarland, 2006; Mausfeld, 2019).

Chicano rock

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

In places such as San Antonio, Los Angeles, the San Francisco Bay area, and Dallas and Houston, Texas, the African-American audience was very important to aspiring Latino musicians, and this kept their music wedded to authentic R&B. DJ Dick Hugg (aka Huggie Boy) and radio station KRLA 1110 played a big role in promoting this music. Chicano rock music was also influenced by the Doo-wop genre, an example being the song “Angel Baby” by the Chicana fronted group Rosie and the Originals. Don Tosti’s Pachuco Boogie, recorded in 1948, was the first Chicano million-selling record, a swing tune featuring Spanish lyrics, using hipster slang called Calo. Lalo Guerrero arrived in Los Angeles in the late 1930s and found that L.A. was “bursting with ambition”. Lalo and his friend captured their spirit in music by mixing swing and boogie-woogie in a cross-cultural, dialogue between African American, Anglo, and Mexican American influences. The 1950s brought rhythm and blues and the roots of rock ’n’ roll. The Mexican Americans were among the first to catch the beat and introduced a Latin flair to early rock music. The 1958 hit song “Tequila!” was written and sung by the saxophone player Danny Flores (not to be confused with Danny David Flores, a former member of Renegade) and performed by The Champs. Flores, who died in September 2006, was known as the “Godfather of Latino Rock.” In the early to mid-1960s, Latin music was most welcoming to the American audience in the United States because of the popularity in genres like bossa nova, bugalú, mambo. At the same time, artists did not fit neatly into the narrow confines of early rock. Trini Lopez, an artist who found success in the folk scene blended folk and pop influences. He scored a major hit with “If I Had a Hammer” in 1963. He later recorded the traditional Mexican song “Corazón de Melón”. In the mid-1960s, the British Invasion took over with bands like The Beatles and The Rolling Stones dominated charts and shifted public taste, and this is when Lopez’s upbeat music began to seem outdated. In the 60s, there was an explosion of Chicano rock bands in East Los Angeles and Texas. Sunny & the Sunglows produced several regional hits during the 1960s but is best remembered for its 1963 Number 11 Billboard hit “Talk to Me, Talk to Me”. They hold the distinction of being the first all-Mexican American group featured on American Bandstand. Their versions of “Rags to Riches” (Tony Bennett) and “Out of Sight-Out of Mind” (The Five Keys) also reached the Billboard Hot 100. Another group to appear on American Bandstand as well as open for The Rolling Stones, was The Premiers with their hit rendition of a Don and Dewey song called “Farmer John”. It featured the beat from the popular hit, Louie, Louie, which was in turn based on a Latino song, El Loco Cha Cha. Richard Berry, credited with writing Louie, Louie, drew inspiration to record the song after listening to an R&B rendition of El Loco Cha Cha performed by the Latin R&B group ‘Rhythm Rockers’ led by Mexican-Filipino American brothers, Rick and Barry Rillera. The Rillera brothers would go on to record and perform with The Righteous Brothers. The British Invasion challenged all American musicians, not just Chicanos. East Los Angeles witnessed a surge of creativity, and a renaissance of art, music and politics. Leading the way in music was the band Cannibal & the Headhunters, composed of five young men from the projects who recorded a national hit, “Land of a Thousand Dances”, and almost overnight found themselves opening for the Beatles on the British superstars’ 1965 tour. That same year, Thee Midniters hit the charts with “Whittier Blvd.”, an anthem to East L.A.’s most famous street, the home of a late-night cruising scene that expressed the California car culture that Mexican Americans were making their own. Also in 1965, the Chicano led Sam the Sham and The Pharaohs released the international hit “Wooly Bully” which would go on to sell three million copies. Penned by frontman Domingo “Sam” Samudio, it holds the distinction of being the first American record to sell a million copies during the British Invasion era. In 1966, the Mexican American garage band ? and the Mysterians scored a number one hit with the song “96 Tears”. The Sir Douglas Quintet is said to have made the most ‘English’ sounding American music of the Beatlemania period (actually since the English were playing music that was more rooted in R&B than many white Americans of that time, the Quintet were actually sounding ‘English’ by keeping to an all-American R&B/Country sound). Indeed, producer Huey P. Meaux put the Sir in the group’s name to emphasize the connection, but that was more a marketing change than a musical one. The Sir Douglas Quintet was from central Texas, and some of its members were Latinos. However, the group’s lead singer, Doug Sahm, was not of Mexican descent. Sahm was so thoroughly immersed in Tejano culture, that he later recorded an album under the name Doug Saldaña. Despite the musician’s efforts to make the group appear to have emerged from the British Invasion, scholars have noted that the group’s clear Tejano influences and accordion based slowed down polka rhythms give the band a Chicano rock title. In the late 1960s and 1970s, when civil rights and the Vietnam War were compelling issues, young Mexican American proudly called themselves Chicanos—which was once considered as a derogatory term—and many took to the streets to stand up for their rights. Chicano duo Cheech and Chong released novelty single “Basketball Jones” (1973) and hit “Earache My Eye” (1974). Bands like El Chicano, Malo, Azteca, Tierra, and Sapo (1974) created new music that “said something” about Chicano heritage and their struggles for equality and justice. The trend of Chicano rock mirrored what was happening on college campuses as well. The rise of Chicano Studies departments, which offered courses in Chicano literature, politics and culture, affected college students and musicians tremendously. Musicians rebelled against the “old world” and adopt the Mexican and Latin American styles in their own music. Linda Ronstadt is a versatile singer who traversed multiple genres. She gained national hits such as “You’re No Good” (1975), “It’s So Easy”, “Blue Bayou” (1977), “Back in the USA” (1978), and “Hurt So Bad” (1980) in the 1970s and ’80s. Ronstadt was nurtured by her Mexican American family whose musical roots run deep in the Mexican border region of Tucson, Arizona. Ronstadt holds dear the memory of childhood serenades by “The Father of Chicano Rock,” Lalo Guerrero, a close family friend. Ronstadt’s great-aunt Luisa Espinel gained international popularity interpreting Spanish and Mexican song and dance in the 1930s. Among the most popular female pop singers, Ronstadt has been described as an influential Chicana musician, with scholars noting her extensive discography and career spanning over forty years.

Choro

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Choro instruments#

Originally choro was played by a trio of flute, guitar and cavaquinho (a small chordophone with four strings). Other instruments commonly played in choro are the mandolin, clarinet, saxophone, trumpet and trombone. These melody instruments are backed by a rhythm section composed of 6-string guitar, seven-string guitar (playing bass lines) and light percussion, such as a pandeiro. The cavaquinho appears sometimes as a melody instrument, other times as part of the rhythm.

Chouval bwa

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

The Martinique bèlè is a legacy of the slave music tradition. The bélé itself is a huge tambour drum that players ride as though it was a horse. It is characterized, in its rhythm, by the “tibwa” (two wooden sticks) played on a length of bamboo mounted on a stand to the tambour bèlè. Added to the tambour bèlè and tibwa are the maracas, more commonly referred to as the chacha. The tibwa rhythm plays a basic pattern and the drum comes to mark the highlights and introduce percussion improvisations. It is organized in a certain way, the first entry of the singer ( lavwa ) and choir ( lavwa Deye or “answer”). Then the “Bwatè” (player ti bwa) sets the pace, followed by bèlè drum. Finally, the dancers take the stage. A dialogue is created between the dancers and the “tanbouyè” (drummer). The “answer” plays opposite the singer, the audience can also participate.

Conjunto

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Mexican#

Mexican conjunto music, also known as conjunto tejano, was born in south Texas at the end of the 19th century, after German settlers introduced the button accordion. The bajo sexto has come to accompany the button accordion and is integral to the conjunto sound. Many conjuntos are concentrated in the Southwestern portion of the United States, primarily in Texas and California. In Mexico, the term conjunto is associated with norteño and tejano music. Since tejano was bred out of norteño music originally, this association is not entirely false. However, due to various cultural and socioeconomic developments in the 1900s, norteño musicians began trailblazing the tejano genre as a tangent to conjunto. In the United States and Mexico, a conjunto band is composed of four main instruments: the button accordion, the bajo sexto, an electric bass, and a drum set. The place of the electric bass was first filled by the tololoche, or contrabass, until it was replaced in the 1950s. They are popular in northern Mexico and southern Texas. German and East European settlers brought their accordions, waltzes and polkas to the region, which were adapted by the local population. Texas accordion player Flaco Jiménez is probably the best-known conjunto musician in the United States, with a career spanning sixty years and earning him six Grammy awards.

Corrido

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Form#

Corridos, like rancheras, have introductory instrumental music and adornos (ornamentations), accommodating the stanzas of the lyrics. Like rancheras, corridos can be played in virtually all regional Mexican styles. Also, like rancheras, corridos are usually played in march, waltz, or mazurka mode.

History#

The word corrido comes from the Spanish word correr (“to run”). A typical corrido’s formula is eight quatrains with four to six lines containing eight syllables. The earliest living specimens of corrido are adapted versions of Spanish romances or European tales, mainly about disgraced or idealized love or religious topics. These, which include (among others) “La Martina” (an adaptation of the romance “La Esposa Infiel”) and “La Delgadina”, show the same basic stylistic features of the later mainstream corridos (1/2 or 3/4 tempo and verso menor lyric composing, meaning verses of eight or less phonetic syllables, grouped in strophes of six or fewer verses). Beginning with the Mexican War of Independence (1810–1821) and culminating during the Mexican Revolution (1910–1921), the genre flourished and acquired its “epic” tones, along with the three-step narrative structure. The academic study of corridos written during the Revolution shows that they were used to communicate news throughout Mexico as a response to the propaganda being spread in the newspapers, which the corrupt government of Porfirio Díaz owned. Sheet music of popular corridos was sold or included in publications. Other corrido sheets were passed out free as a form of propaganda to eulogize leaders, armies, and political movements or, in some cases, to mock the opposition. The best-known Revolutionary corrido is “La Cucaracha”, an old song rephrased to celebrate the exploits of Pancho Villa’s army and poke fun at his nemesis Victoriano Huerta. File:Cantos populares maderistas Aquiles serdan.jpg Song about the battle of Ciudad Juarez titled Toma de Ciudad Juárez Image:Valentina-corrido.jpg Corrido sheet music from 1915, at the height of the Mexican Revolution File:Corrido de la Cucaracha (Antonio Venegas).jpg A contemporary corrido song sheet of “La cucaracha” issued during the Mexican Revolution. Note the original lyrics and the reference to cartoncitos, a scrip issued as pay. Before the widespread use of radio, popular corridos were passed around as an oral tradition, often to spread news of events (for example, “La cárcel de Cananea”) and famous heroes and humour to the population, many of whom were illiterate before the post-Revolution improvements to the educational system. Until the arrival and success of electronic mass media in the mid-20th century, the corrido served in Mexico as the leading informational and educational outlet, even with subversive purposes, due to an apparent linguistic and musical simplicity that lent itself to oral transmission. After the spread of radio and television, the genre evolved into a new stage and is still in maturation. However, some scholars have disputed this notion and consider the corrido to be a dead or moribund art form. With the consolidation of “Presidencialismo” (the political era following the Mexican Revolution) and the success of electronic mass media, corridos lost their primacy as a form of mass communication, becoming part of a folklorist cult in one branch and, in another, the voice of the new subversives: oppressed workers, drug growers or traffickers, leftist activists and emigrated farm workers (mainly to the United States). Scholars designate this as the “decaying” stage of the genre, which tends to erase the stylistic or structural characteristics of “revolutionary” or traditional corrido without a clear and unified understanding of its evolution. This is mainly signified by the “narcocorrido”, many of which are egocentric ballads paid for by drug smugglers to anonymous and almost illiterate composers, but with others coming from the most popular norteño and banda artists and written by some of the most successful and influential ranchera composers. In more rural areas, where Spanish and Mexican cultures have been preserved because of isolation, romantic works have also taken on other forms related to the corrido. In New Mexico, for example, a story-song emerged during the colonial period known as an Indita, which loosely follows the format of a corrido, but is chanted rather than sung, similar to a Native American chant, hence they are called Inditas. Some corridos are love stories. These are not exclusively male; there are also corridos about women, such as “La Venganza de Maria”, “Laurita Garza”, “El Corrido de Rosita Alvirez” and “La Adelita”, or couples, such as “La Fama de la Pareja” sung by Los Tigres del Norte. Some even employ fictional stories invented by their composers. In the Mestizo-Mexican cultural area, the three variants of corrido (romance, revolutionary and modern) are both alive and sung, along with popular sister narrative genres, such as the “valona” of Michoacán state, the “son arribeño” of the Sierra Gorda (Guanajuato, Hidalgo and Querétaro states) and others. Its vitality and flexibility allow original corrido lyrics to be built on non-Mexican musical genres, such as blues and ska, or with non-Spanish lyrics, like the famous song “El Paso” by Marty Robbins, and corridos composed or translated by Mexican indigenous communities or by the “Chicano” people in the United States, in English or “Spanglish”. The corrido was, for example, a favourite device employed by the Teatro Campesino led by Luis Valdez in mobilizing predominantly Mexican and Mexican-American farmworkers in California during the 1960s. Corridos have seen a renaissance in the 21st century. Contemporary corridos feature contemporary themes such as drug trafficking (narcocorridos), immigration, migrant labour, and the chupacabra.

Corridos tumbados

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Origins#

Corridos tumbados emerged in northwestern Mexico and the southwestern United States, particularly in Sinaloa, Sonora, and Jalisco, as well as among Mexican-American communities in the United States. While drawing from the narrative tradition of classic corridos—songs that once glorified revolutionaries and rural outlaws—this new wave modernized the sound by integrating urban beats, trap flows, auto-tuned vocals, and streetwise lyricism. The genre name was first popularized by Natanael Cano, who released his 2019 breakout album titled Corridos Tumbados, effectively branding the hybrid style and giving the genre its namesake. The term “tumbado” can roughly translate to “laid-back”. However, in a broader musical sense, “tumbado” operates similarly to the term alternative in genres like rock or R&B, signaling a departure from traditional styles in favor of experimental or unconventional driven variations.

Criolla

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Cuban rock

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

The 1950s#

The strong influence of American music on the younger Cuban generations paved the way for the introduction of rock & roll in the island during the 1950s. Many Cuban artists sung versions of American songs translated to Spanish, as it was also happening in Mexico. although electrically-amplified treses were already being played by musicians such as Senén Suárez. The repertoire of Los Llopis consisted of a combination of American and rock pieces, such as “See You Later, Alligator” and “Rock Around the Clock” by the Bill Haley group, with other Cuban and Hispanic pieces like “Goza mi Guaracha”, “Maquinolandera” and “La pollera colorá”. Los Llopis also succeeded in Spain, where they established their residence for some years and introduced pachanga, a new Cuban rhythm with an influence from the Dominican merengue. In 1959 Luisito Bravo bursted into the Cuban musical scene with songs such as Neil Sedaka’s “Oh Carol” and the Italian song “Tiernamente (Torna a Surriento)” (covered by Elvis Presley as “Surrender”, reaching 500,000 record sales by 1961. Other solo artists followed Luisito Bravo, such as Rogelio Sanzarini and Jorge Bauer, as well as groups such as the Satélites of Antonio María Romeu and the Tony Taño band.

Cuban rumba

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Etymology#

According to Joan Corominas, the word derives from “rumbo”, meaning “uproar” (and previously “pomp”) and also “the course of a ship”, which itself may derive from the word “rombo” (“rhombus”), a symbol used in compasses. In the 1978 documentary La rumba, directed by Óscar Valdés, it is stated that the term rumba originated in Spain to denote “all that is held as frivolous”, deriving from the term “mujeres de rumbo”. Alternatively, in Cuba the term might have originated from a West African or Bantu language, due to its similarity to other Afro-Caribbean words such as tumba, macumba, mambo and tambó. The terms rumbón and rumbantela (the latter of Galician or Portuguese origin According to non-etymological sources, rumba could be related to “nkumba” meaning “navel” in Kikongo, which refers to a dance characterized by the joining and rubbing of navels. This dance was integral to the celebrations of the Kingdom of Kongo, a historical region that spanned present-day Republic of the Congo, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Angola. Due to its broad etymology, the term rumba historically retained a certain degree of polysemy. By the end of the 19th century, Cuban peasants (guajiros) began to perform rumbitas during their parties (guateques, changüís, parrandas and fiestas patronales). These songs were actually in the form of urban guarachas (not proper rumbas), which had a binary meter in contrast to the ternary meter of traditional rural genres such as tonada and zapateo. Similarly, in Cuban bufo theatre at the beginning of the 20th century, the guarachas that were sung at the end of the show were referred to as rumba final despite not sharing any musical similarities with actual rumba.

Cumbia pop

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Influences and development#

The cumbia pop genre emerged in the mid-2000s when some musical groups from Uruguay and Argentina made covers of popular songs, mixing them with cumbia and pop elements, and published them on YouTube. One of the pioneers was the Uruguayan group VI-EM, followed by the Argentine group Agapornis. However, it did not gain as much notoriety, but at that time other subgenres such as cumbia villera were more popular. Beginning in 2013–2014, cumbia pop went mainstream with the formation in Montevideo of the Uruguayan bands Rombai and Márama, which became extremely popular in Uruguay, Argentina, and other Latin American countries. They adopted danceable rhythms and lyrics related to love and youth life, as both groups were composed of people in their 20s, and included elements of pop and electropop, giving the musical genre its definitive shape. These bands toured several seaside towns and released summer hits, which increased their notoriety among young people. Since the members of the most popular bands were youngsters from the upper-middle class or upper class, and since the lyrics and music videos showcased luxury, exclusive parties, and aspirational lifestyles, this subgenre also became known as Cumbia Cheta. “Cheta”—the feminine form of the word “cheto”—is a slang from Rioplatense Spanish used to describe someone or something associated with the upper class. Cumbia pop broke away from the traditional association of cumbia with working-class and middle-class people and aligned itself with the internationally popular pop and Latin pop music. Given the rise of the genre, other bands emerged that also achieved wide popularity, such as the Uruguayan Toco Para Vos, Canto Para Bailar and Dame 5, and the Argentine .

Cumbia rebajada

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

Due to Colombian immigration to Monterrey in the second half of the 20th century and the importation of records from Mexico City, various musical genres from the South American country became popular, such as cumbia, vallenato, and porro. This popularization through parties would give rise to the phenomenon known as “Kolombia” in places like the Independencia neighborhood. According to Gabriel Duéñez, a sound engineer for four decades and a collector of Colombian music from Monterrey, the rebajada originated accidentally when the beats-per-minute control on his Sonido Duéñez music player broke down and began to play Colombian music at a slower speed, resulting in a “more rebajado (slowed-down), more watery” rhythm. Those attending his dances began to request that Duéñez play the rebajada music than at its normal tempo. Gabriel and other vendors in Monterrey began selling cassettes and later CDs of reduced versions of popular cumbias. Given the popularity of the music, Colombian music groups in the city began to compose and perform at that tempo. Cumbia rebajada would remain in Monterrey, becoming part of the cultural phenomenon known as cholombiano. The reduced aesthetic would also influence the sonidero, where groups such as Sonido La Changa and Sonido Siboney continued the style by manipulating the tempo of old Colombian songs, turning them into hits in Mexico and Central America. According to DJ and music producer Toy Selectah, cumbia rebajada is “the dubstep of cumbia.” DJs, producers, and musicians of different nationalities have mixed cumbia rebajada with other rhythms such as dubstep and reggae.

Cumbia santafesina

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Background#

Cumbia santafesina began in the mid 1960s with the creation of Grupo Santa Cecilia, who adapted Colombian cumbia introduced to the country by bands such as the Imperial Quartet, with a distinctive Italian and Polish influence (Los Palmeras, Yuli and Los Girasoles), above all on their accordions. This bands was led by accordionist Alberto Fernández, alias Toto ; Toto Fernández would be a teacher and mentor to numerous accordionists of this musical genre, such as Marcos Caminos (leader of Los Palmeras), Miguel Carranza (leader of Los Cumbiambas, Dario Zanco (leader of Grupo Cali) and many others. The vocalist of Grupo Santa Cecilia was the young Italian of Polish origin Czeslav Popowicz, who would be vocalist of Los Palmeras and leader of the bands Yuli y los Girasoles at the beginning of the 1970s, at the hands of Los Cumbiambas and Los Palmeras, the cumbia santafesina with accordion was widely accepted by the public of the capital santafesina and its surroundings (including Paraná). In 1975, in Buenos Aires, the santafesina band Los Duendes recorded their first record work, being the first band of cumbia santafesina to launch their work on record. The following year, from the hand of the representative Martín Robustiano Gutiérrez, Los Palmeras released their first album. But the event that finished defining the style was the appearance of the band Los del Bohio who adopted the guitar as the main instrument, leaving aside the traditional accordion. This band was founded in 1976 by the guitarist Juan Carlos Denis, who had previously played in renowned bands of the time such as Emil Villar and his Ensemble, Los Cumbiambas and El Cuartetazo. These first bands of cumbia santafesina were characterized by their amateurism and by the difficulties they faced in obtaining funds that would allow them to record their material. It is at this time that the figure of Martín “Chani” Robustiano Gutiérrez was key, who raised funds so that these recordings could be made. In his honor the day of cumbia santafesina is celebrated every 5 November when a new anniversary of his death is celebrated.

Cumbia villera

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History#

Cumbia villera was born in the late 1990s, amid an economic and social decline in Argentina. The introduction of neoliberal economics in Argentina in the early ’90s gave a quick boost to the nation’s economy but progressively marginalized large areas of society, and by the late ’90s, Argentina was in a great depression. Some of the most affected by this crisis were workers and the lower classes, and among them were the inhabitant and dwellers of the villas miseria (slums or shantytowns) in Buenos Aires and its metropolitan area, which favoured cumbia and other tropical music genres. It was in this situation that in 1999, the first cumbia villera band was born in the depths of Villa La Esperanza, a slum in San Fernando, Buenos Aires (in the north of the Buenos Aires metropolitan area). Pablo Lescano, then keytarist from one of these cumbia bands, Amar Azul, started to pen new songs with more aggressive lyrics. His band rejected them, so he began saving money from the royalties he earned from Amar Azul songs in order to buy instruments and equipment for producing an independent record. He created a new group with a different aesthetic, different lyrics, and a different sound, Flor de Piedra. By 2000, dozens of cumbia villera bands were playing and recording, It was at this point that some of the most popular albums in the history of cumbia villera were released, including Ritmo sustancia by Mala Fama (2000), 100% Villero by Yerba Brava (2001), and Sólo Le Pido A Dios by Pibes Chorros (2002). The genre and its repercussions were widely discussed in the mainstream media, with debates in major newspapers, magazines, TV shows, and radio shows, and the phenomenon even reached television, with Tumberos (2002), and film, with El bonaerense (2002) and El polaquito (2003). Cumbia villera bands began touring neighbouring countries, North America, and Europe, spreading the genre beyond its original boundaries. This “Argentine invasion” influenced artists in other countries, including Uruguay (La Clave), Paraguay (Los Rebeldes), Bolivia (Diego Soria), Chile (Buena Huacho), and Mexico (Cumbia Zero), which contributed musically to the genre by incorporating different regional styles and influences as well as local vocabulary and slang. Trends in Argentine cumbia started to change by 2003, owing to the election of president Néstor Kirchner and the subsequent improvement in the nation’s economy. Additionally, the Argentine music industry began to pressure bands to stop using controversial lyrics, and censorship from broadcasters and the COMFER reduced cumbia villera’s prevalence. Christian advocacy in the villas also contributed to these changes. Newer cumbia villera bands, such as La Base and El Original, mostly avoided controversial themes and instead sang about love, naming their style cumbia base to avoid some of the stigma that cumbia villera had acquired. Through the first decade of the 2000s, cumbia villera continued to have a stronghold among workers and poor communities all over Latin America, with new bands forming each year. The biggest names in the genre continued to tour, including Damas Gratis and Pibes Chorros. As late as 2007, 30% of total sales in the Argentine music industry were from cumbia villera records. In the 2010s, promotion of cumbia villera bands by mainstream music publications like Rolling Stone, the organization of concerts at popular venues, and the close collaboration and financial production of cumbia villera bands by mainstream musicians such as Andrés Calamaro, Vicentico, and Fidel Nadal suggested that the genre was alive and well. To this day, cumbia villera remains known as the most aggressive, defiant, and socially conscious style of cumbia ever made.

Dancehall

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Lead#

Dancehall is named after Jamaican dance halls in which popular Jamaican recordings were played by local sound systems. It both refers to the music and dance style. It faced criticism for negatively influencing Jamaican culture and portraying gangster lifestyles in a praiseworthy way.

Early developments - Early 1970s#

Dancehall music, also called ragga, is a style of Jamaican popular music that had its genesis in the political turbulence of the late 1970s and became Jamaica’s dominant music in the 1980s and ’90s. It was also originally called Bashment music when Jamaican dancehalls began to gain popularity. Social and political changes in late-1970s Jamaica, including the change from the socialist government of Michael Manley (People’s National Party) to Edward Seaga (Jamaica Labour Party), Themes of social injustice, repatriation and the Rastafari movement were overtaken by lyrics about dancing, violence and sexuality. Though the revolutionary spirit was present in Jamaica due to this social upheaval, the radio was very conservative and failed to play the people’s music. It was this gap that the sound system was able to fill with music that the average Jamaican was more interested in. Alongside this music was the addition of the fashion, art, and dance that came along with it. This made Dancehall both a genre, and a way of life. In contrast to roots reggae, which aimed for respectability and international recognition, dancehall did not hesitate in dealing with the day-by-day realities and basal interests of the average Jamaican—especially that of lower classes—and observing society in a provocative, gritty, and often vulgar manner. Since this put spreading via radio out of the question, dancehall initially gained popularity only through live performances in sound systems and specialized record dealing. Dancehall’s violent lyrics, which garnered the genre much criticism since its very inception, stem from the political turbulence and gang violence of late 1970s Jamaica. In the early days of dancehall, the prerecorded rhythm tracks (bass guitar and drums) or “dub” that the deejay would rap or “toast” over came from earlier reggae songs from the 1960s and 1970s. Ragga, specifically, refers to modern dancehall, where a deejay particularly toasts over digital (electrical) rhythms.

Dancehall pop

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Early developments#

As the sub-genre of its fathering music style dancehall, dancehall pop combines instrumental reggae and drum patterns of Jamaican sounds with the vocal melodies and catchy lyrics of pop music. The name of the genre itself is also credited to Jamaican music lifestyle, where artists and producers would play music from sound systems in local dancehalls. The socio-political changes after the 1970s government change in Jamaica affected dancehall styles, where lyrics moved away from political protest and more towards partying lifestyle. The dancehall genre trend of reusing beats, also known as “reworking”, is also still evident in dancehall pop as well, with many artists sampling old school dancehall track instrumentals––colloquially known as “riddims”. the dancehall pop genre combines rhythm and sounds from across in the Caribbean including that of soca, calypso and reggaeton. The fusion between dancehall and pop is attributed to the early digitisation of musical production in Jamaica, where the format of pop music––such as the melodic verse-chorus structure and repeated choruses––could be combined with the fast-paced instrumental rhythms of dancehall. Dancehall pop music did not make its mainstream arrival into the music industry until the early 2000s. Dancehall and soca songs such as Kevin Lyttle’s “Turn Me On” and Rupee’s “Tempted to Touch”, both released in 2002 and 2003 respectively, are examples of the early combinations of the digital pop style and Caribbean rhythms into the western music scene. It was dancehall pop artist Sean Paul, who released his second studio album Dutty Rock in 2002, including the hit singles “Get Busy” and “Gimme the Light” that put the genre on highly rated chart positions, with the album reaching a peak position of number 4 on the US Billboard 200. Sean Paul’s collaboration on the album with at-the-time rising pop star Beyoncé, titled “Baby Boy”, reached number 1 on the US Billboard Hot 100. This marked the beginning of the mainstream dancehall and pop fusion. Barbadian singer-songwriter Rihanna then released her debut dancehall pop single in 2005, “Pon de Replay”, which reached number two on the Billboard Hot 100 and UK Singles Chart. The genre had a small absence from the pop charts and then reemerged again in the 2010s with numerous Caribbean artists such as Kranium, Konshens, and Popcaan entering the dance-pop music charts. As these artists curated their names in the music industry, chart-topping pop artists like Drake, Rihanna, and Major Lazer incorporated the dancehall pop sounds into their respective hit singles “One Dance”, “Work”, and “Boom” which each gained top 20 spots on the US Billboard Hot 100. Drake’s dancehall pop and rap inspired track “One Dance” became a best-selling and chart-topping single, giving credit to the genre within the mainstream music scene. Named as the “song of the summer”, and spent over two months as number 1 on the Billboard Hot 100, largely contributing to the mass-audience recognition of dancehall pop.

Danza

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Danza in Puerto Rico#

Danza is a form of music that can be varied in its expression. The Puerto Rican national anthem, La Borinqueña, was originally a danza that was later altered to fit a more anthem-like style. Danzas can be either romantic or festive. Romantic danzas have four sections, beginning with an eight-measure paseo followed by three themes of sixteen measures each. The third theme typically includes a solo by the bombardino and, often, a return to the first theme or a coda at the end. Festive danzas are free-form, with the only rules being an introduction and a swift rhythm. The first part of the romantic danza, the paseo, had 8 measures of music without a fixed rhythm (a snare drumroll may be played as background), when the couples circled the room elegantly, giving the lady the opportunity to display her beauty. The second part, called the merengue, grew from the original 16 measures to 34, in 1854. Here the couples held each other in a proper stance and executed turns that looked very much like a waltz. While the origins of the danza are murky, it probably arose around 1840 as a sort of reaction against the highly codified contradanza and, according to Cuban sources, was strongly influenced by Cuban immigrants and their habanera music. The first danzas were immature, youthful songs condemned by the authorities, who occasionally tried ineffectively to ban the genre. In Puerto Rico, the genre continued evolving until it was taken up by the young pianist Manuel Gregorio Tavárez, who had just arrived from his studies in Paris, and took it to a new artistic level. His disciple, Juan Morel Campos, adopted it also and developed it further to its maximum expression, composing more than 300 danzas, most of them masterpieces of an exquisite beauty. The danza that evolved was inspired mostly by women and romance and their titles reflected that change.

Danzón

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History#

The danzón developed from the habanera, a creolized Cuban dance form. By 1879, the year Las alturas de Simpson composed by Miguel Failde (leader of the Orquesta Faílde) was first performed in Matanzas, Creation of the new danzón form is generally attributed to Faílde. The classical composer Manuel Saumell has also been cited as a key figure in its delineation.

Precursors: figure dances#

The English contradanza was the predecessor of the “habanera”, also known as danza criolla. Out of this Creole genre, the Habanera, was born in 1879 another Cuban genre, called danzon, a sequence dance, in which all danced together a set of figures. The first use of the term danzón, which dates from the 1850s, is for just such a dance. Havana’s daily paper, El Triunfo, gave a description of this earlier danzón. It was a co-ordinated dance of figures performed by groups of Matanzas blacks. The dancers held the ends of colored ribbons, and carried flower-covered arches. The group twisted and entwined the ribbons to make pleasing patterns. This account can be corroborated by other references, for example, a traveler in Cuba noted in 1854 that black Cubans “do a kind of wreath dance, in which the whole company took part, amid innumerable artistic entanglements and disentanglements”. This style of danzón was performed at carnival comparsas by black groups: it is described that way before the late 1870s. Faílde’s first danzóns were created for just such sequence dances. Faílde himself said “In Matanzas at this time there was a kind of square dance for twenty couples who carried arches and flowers. It was really a dance of figures (sequence dance), and its moves were adapted to the tempo of the habanera, which we took over for the danzón.”

Dembow beat

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History#

At the beginning of the 1990s, there existed several closely related Jamaican-origin dancehall riddims revolving around a “boom-ch-boom-chick” sound such as the “Bam Bam riddim” or the “Fever Pitch riddim”. One of these riddims was “Fish Market”, also known as the “Pocoman Jam riddim”, produced by Jamaican duo Steely & Clevie in 1989. This riddim was then used in the 1990 song “Dem Bow” by Shabba Ranks, of which the name “dembow” was taken, becoming known as the “Dem Bow riddim”. The same year, it was reworked by producer Dennis the Menace in “Pounder (Dub Mix II)”, the B-side of the vocal version “Pounder” performed by Bobo General and Sleepy Wonder. “Dub Mix II” is the version that was later sampled by Puerto Rican artists in the early 1990s to 2000s, as well as the “dem bow” name being used to describe the entire nascent genre that would eventually come to be known as reggaeton. As reggaeton was beginning to form, it also employed the tresillo pattern that is common in Latin American music. The term “dembow” today commonly refers simply to the drum beat of reggaeton, which, while retaining its core “boom-ch-boom-chick” sound, has stylistic variations.

Descarga

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Origins: son, filin and jazz#

During the 1940s, the term descarga was commonly used in the music scenes of Cuba to refer to performances of jazz-influenced boleros in an improvised manner. This was part of the so-called filin (feeling) movement spearheaded by artists such as José Antonio Méndez, César Portillo de la Luz, and Luis Yánez. At this time, however, the term descarga began to be used in a different way to describe jam sessions based on the son montuno and other Afro-Cuban rhythms.

Dominican dembow

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Dub music

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Name#

The use of the word dub in a recording context originated in the late 1920s with the advent of “talking pictures” and referred to adding a soundtrack to a film; it is an informal abbreviation of the word double. Over the next 40 years or so the term found its way into audio recording in general, often in the context of making a copy of a recording on another tape or disc. It was in this sense that the term was first used in the Jamaican recording industry: new recordings were often initially copied onto one-off acetate discs, known colloquially as soft wax or dub and later as dubplates, for exclusive use by sound system operators; playing a song as an exclusive recording on a sound system was a good way for a producer to test the potential popularity of a recording before committing to the pressing of hundreds or thousands of copies of singles for retail sale. Initially, these acetates would simply be the standard recording of a song that was yet to be released on a single; around 1968–69, however, they started to be exclusive mixes with some or all of the vocal mixed out. Producer Bunny Lee notes: Yeah… it was really VERSION those days it wasn’t dub yet beca’ it was jus’ the riddim. One day an incident: Ruddy’s (sound system operator Ruddy Redwood) was cutting dub, an when it start, Smithy (recording engineer Byron Smith) look like ‘im start bring on the voice and Ruddy’s say: no, mek it run and ‘im take the whole backing track off it. ‘Im say, alright, run it again, and put in the voice. ‘Im didn’t do no more like that yet. After describing how Redwood then had his deejay first play the vocal version and then the instrumental version at a dance, and how popular this novelty was, Lee continued: The next day now, ‘im start it and just bring in the riddim. Or… down in the tune, bring a little voice and drop it out again… yes. Ruddy use to handle that part himself, drop in the voice and drop it out. All Smithy do was cut the dub… It is possible that the existing use of the word dub for other meanings in Jamaica around the time of the music’s origin may have helped to cement its use in the musical context. The most frequent meanings referred to either a form of erotic dance or sexual intercourse; such usage is frequently present in names of reggae songs, for instance, of the Silvertones’ “Dub the Pum Pum” (where pum pum is Jamaican slang for female genitalia), Big Joe and Fay’s “Dub a Dawta” ( is Jamaican patois for daughter). I-Roy’s “Sister Maggie Breast” features several references on sex: I man a-dub it on the side Say little sister you can run but you can’t hide Slip you got to slide you got to open your crotches wide Peace and love abide However, all three of these songs were recorded after the use of dub for a style of remixing was already prevalent.

Dub poetry

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Political nature#

Dub poetry has been a vehicle for political and social commentary, with none of the braggadocio often associated with the dancehall. The odd love-song or elegy appears, but dub poetry is predominantly concerned with politics and social justice, commonly voiced through a commentary on current events (thus sharing these elements with dancehall and “conscious” or “roots” reggae music).

Notable albums#

Dub poetry has established itself as a major form of black popular art and its breakthrough was made through Linton Kwesi Johnson’s (LKJ)’s seminal album Dread Beat an’ Blood, which was released in the UK in 1978. Oku Onuora’s Reflection In Red in 1979 was the first Jamaican recording of a dub poem, followed by Lillian Allen’s Revolutionary Tea Party and Benjamin Zephaniah’s Rasta, both produced in 1983, and many others from the early 1980s onwards such as Anti Social Workers ‘Positive Style’ produced by leading dub producer The Mad Professor on Ariwa Records.

Duranguense

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History#

The term duranguense refers to the people from the Mexican state of Durango. Paraíso Tropical de Durango are believed to be the first to begin the movement in the early 1990s. The genre’s popularity peaked in the mid to late 2000s among the Mexican and Mexican American community in the United States, as well as in many parts of Mexico. It also popularized the dance style, Pasito Duranguense.

Artists#

Other famous Duranguense acts include Montéz de Durango, K-Paz de la Sierra, Alacranes Musical, Los Horóscopos de Durango, Patrulla 81, Conjunto Atardecer, and El Trono de México.

Extempo

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Art of extempo#

It is characterised either by the “single tone”, consisting of four-line stanzas or the “double tone”, which has eight-line stanzas. There are four basic melodies common to extempo: “Sans Humanite”, “Matilda”, “Miss Mary Ann”, and “Big Bamboo”. The most widely used is “Sans Humanite”. Another characteristic of extempo is that the performer must be able to think quickly since the subjects are handed out on the spot and the lyrics are then improvised.

Forró

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Origin of the music#

The forrós were popular dances that took place in certain locations, using various rhythms. Forró as a festivity and musical genre has its joint origin in several states of the Brazilian Northeast, emerging in the outskirts of the capitals and in the countryside of the states of Bahia, Pernambuco, Paraíba, Rio Grande do Norte, and Alagoas. Forró encompasses various rural rhythms from several northeastern states, such as baião, xote, arrasta pé, xaxado, coco, rural samba, among many other rhythms. The popular dances, according to the Pernambucan press, were known as “forrobodó” or “forrobodança” or even “forrobodão” already by the end of the 19th century.

Frevo

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Origins of Frevo#

The frevo music came first. By the end of the 19th century, bands from the Brazilian Army regiments based in the city of Recife started a tradition of parading during the Carnival. Since the Carnival is originally linked to Catholicism, they played religious procession marches and martial music, as well. A couple of infantry and cavalry regiments had famous bands which attracted many followers amongst the populace of the state and it was just a matter of time to people start to compare one to another and cheer for their favorite bands. The two most famous bands were the Espanha (meaning Spain), whose conductor was of Spanish origin, and the 14, from the 14th Infantry Regiment. The bands started to compete with each other and also started playing faster and faster, louder and louder. In order to end the violence, the police started to pursue the capoeiras and arrested many during their exhibitions. The latter reacted in a clever way by carrying umbrellas instead of knives and also disguising the capoeira movements as dance movements. Thus the dances evolved into what would be a unique form of dance - the frevo dance.

Fungi (music)

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The Fungi Band#

The components of a fungi band or “scratch band” include: *Ukulele *Banjo *Bongos *Guitar *Bouble bass or bass guitar *Keyboard *Calabash *Güiro *Washboard *Triangle *Saxophone

Themes#

Themes explored in fungi music include love and relationship, folklore, the basis of Virgin Islander oral history, on topics ranging from church life to smuggling rum as well as current events and social commentary.

Mood#

Fungi music is usually very festive, even humorous, as it is made for dancing. Band perform at a variety of events including weddings, festivals, parties as well as in restaurants and hotels. There is a definite melody and rhythm and the lyrics are meaningful, as the songs tell stories from the past. These stories are reminders of the life the people of the British Virgin Islands lived. In the British Virgin Islands, fungi music is popular during such events as the British Virgin Islands Music Festival and in both the U.S. and British Virgin Islands, the music is part of the school curriculum.

Funk carioca

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Subgenres#

There are several subgenres derived from funk carioca.

Brega funk#

Brega funk is a subgenre of Funk Carioca that originated in Recife, influenced by brega and arrocha in the early 2010s in the northeast region of Brazil. Unlike classic funk carioca, brega funk has a polished sound that features syncopated and shimmering MIDI pianos, synthesizers, often filtered guitars and the distinct pitched metallic snare drums called caixas, vocal chops are a common companion to the wobbly kick rhythm and up-down bass inherited from brega and, although the genre commonly ranges from 160 to 180 BPM, the half-time tempo makes it seem slower than other funk subgenres. An example of the Brega funk genre is the song “Parabéns” by Pabllo Vittar.

Funk ostentação

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Funk ousadia

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Description#

The genre has been called by several media outlets the successor of funk ostentação, which, following its initial boom in the late 2000s, was beginning to decline in popularity by 2013–14. The presence of humor in the songs differentiate this genre from songs by Mr. Catra and MC Magrinho, which have a clearer and more evident sex appeal. Some of the genre’s principal exponents are MC Pikachu, MC 2K, MC Bin Laden, MC Pedrinho and MC Brinquedo.

Galician rumba

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Origin#

According to Miguel Pérez Lorenzo, there are testimonies about the inclusion of the “Rumba” in the Galician bagpipe’s (gaita) repertoire since the 19th century. He also says in reference to the bagpiper from Ourense, Xoán Ferreiro: “He played, we imagine, those pieces that he heard from his father, other bagpipers, and the band… Jerónimo (father of this bagpiper, who passed away in 1940) emigrated to Cuba, where he lived until five years before his death… those years in Cuba served him to include “rumbas and “boleros” in his repertoire… which now Don Xoán plays. With the exception of the processional pieces that Don Xoán used to play; sometime in the mass and other times walking behind the “Saint” in the procession, the rest was mainly for the people to dance in the fests and romerías.

Gospel reggae

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Grupera

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History#

The original wave of Mexican rock bands got their start mostly with Spanish covers of popular English rock songs. After this initial stage, they moved on to include in their repertoire traditional ranchera songs, in addition to cumbias and ballads. Thus, the 1970s saw the rise of a number of grupera bands that specialized in romantic ballads and songs that up to that point had only been sung with mariachi. The name comes from the fact that many of the bands had names starting with (Group). Most of these groups had a rural origin and many previously played rock music. According to Madrid, cited by Rivera Godina, In the 1990s, the term grupero and its variations started to be part of Mexico’s music industry and began to receive media attention, and, as the first American artist popular on both sides of the border, Selena. The media industry popularized this term to generate products based on grupera, such as the radio station XEQR-FM, whose slogan was (savagely grupero), specialized magazines like Furia Musical and cable channels like Bandamax. Enterprises like Televisa included bands from the grupera wave like Bronco in telenovelas such as Dos mujeres, un camino. In the early 2000s, in Mexico the term Regional Mexican began to be used. Regional Mexican music had already been used for several years in the United States to refer homogeneously to the regional variations of rural Mexican music and avoid including tropical music artists under the label. Meanwhile, grupera came to refer specifically to the bands and solo artists that use electric guitars and basses, electronic keyboards and drums, but that played ballads, cumbias, rancheras, corridos, boleros and huapangos, with said genre being one of many styles under the Regional Mexican umbrella.

Guaguancó

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Percussion#

battery of three conga drummers: the tumbao “salidor” (lowest), tres dos (middle, playing a counter-clave), and quinto (highest, and lead drum). These parts may also be played on cajones, wooden boxes.
claves usually played by a singer
guagua ( catá) (hollowed piece of bamboo)
maraca and/or a chekeré playing the main beats Other instruments may be used on occasion, for example spoons, palitos (wooden sticks striking the side of the drum), and tables and walls played like drums.

Clave#

Rumba clave is the key pattern (guide pattern) used in guaguancó. There is some debate as to how the 4/4 rumba clave should be notated for guaguancó. In actual practice, the third and fourth stroke often fall in rhythmic positions that do not fit neatly into music notation. Triple-pulse strokes can be substituted for duple-pulse strokes. Also, the clave strokes are sometimes displaced in such a way that they don’t fall within either a triple-pulse or duple-pulse “grid”. Therefore, many variations are possible.

Guajira (music)

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Guajira de salón, or guajira-son#

From the 1930s, the guajira was refined and popularized by the singer and guitarist Guillermo Portabales, whose elegant style was known as guajira de salón or guajira-son. This is nothing but another case of synonymy within the Cuban popular music, because in spite of being named as guajira, the style of his songs was nothing else but those of the Cuban Son and Bolero-Son; although their lyrics were always related to rural themes. Since the thirties until his death in a traffic accident, in 1970, Guillermo Portabales sang and recorded numerous guajiras de Salón through North and South America with great popular acclaim. Other renowned performers of guajira-son were Celina González, Coralia Fernández, Ramón Veloz y Radeúnda Lima. One of the most famous guajiras-son is the , composed by Joseíto Fernández and internationally popularized during the 1960s by the American folk singer Pete Seeger.

Guaracha

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Early uses of the word#

Though the word may be historically of Spanish origin, its use in this context pertains strictly to the scope of Cuban music. These are excerpts from reference sources, in date order: A Latin American carol “Convidando está la noche” dates from at least the mid 17th century and both mentions and is a guaracha. It was composed or collected by Juan Garcia de Cespedes (1620–1678) in Puebla, Mexico. This is a typical Spanish guaracha, a musical style that was popular in Caribbean colonies. The lyrics say: “Happily celebrating, some lovely shepherds sing the new style of juguetes for a guaracha. In this guaracha we celebrate while the baby boy is lost in dreams. Play and dance because we have fire in the ice and ice in the fire.” The Gazeta de Barcelona has a number of advertisements for music that mention the guaracha. The earliest mention in this source is #64, dated 11 August 1789, where there is an entry that reads “…otra del Sr. Brito, Portugues: el fandango, la guaracha y seis contradanzas, todo en cifra para guitarra…”. A later entry #83, 15 October 1796, refers to a “…guaracha intitulada Tarántula…”. All of these comments make reference to the genre of Guaracha music, but whether they are of the same type is not quite clear. The usage of the word guaracha is rather vast, implying on occasion “to have a good time”. A different sense of the word includes “joke” or “to have fun”. Other definitions include: *“Báile de la gentualla casi desusado” (dance for the rabble, somewhat old-fashioned). Leal comments on this: “The bailes de la gentualla are known on other occasions as bailes de cuna where people of different races mix. The guaracha employs the structure soloist–coro, that is to say, verses or passages vary between the chorus and the soloist, improvisation occurs, and references made to daily matters, peppered with crafty witticisms.” *“Una canción popular que se canta a coro… Música u orquesta pobre, compuesta de acordeón o guitarra, güiro, maracas, etc”. (a popular song, which is sung alternately (call & response?)… humble music and band &c). *“Cierto género musical” (a particular genre of music).

Guitarrada

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

The popularization of the electric guitar in Brazil in the 1950s and 1960s bringing elements of surf music, instrumental rock and guitarists such as The Ventures and Dick Dale, together with the creation of Jovem Guarda in the 1960s, influenced musicians from Pará in the adoption of the electric guitar and the development of the style. The beginning of the guitarrada was the release of the album Lambadas das Quebradas, in 1978, by Mestre Vieira. In 1996, the group Cravo Carbono was formed in Belém and in 1998 released the album Mundo Açu. In the same year, guitarist Ximbinha (at the time known as Chimbinha) released the album Guitarras Que Cantam. In 2003, Cravo Carbono guitarist Pio Lobato created the musical project Mestres da Guitarrada, together with Mestre Vieira, Mestre Curica and Aldo Sena, which released the album Mestres da Guitarrada in 2004.

Gwo ka

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

The Gwo Ka musical practice emerged in the 17th century during the transatlantic slave trade, as a result of a creolization process: adaptation to surrounding context and assimilation of European cultural elements. African slaves of Guadeloupe used to gather to play drums, sing and dance. The use of any kind of drum was at that time forbidden by the Code Noir. As a consequence, slaves used a vocal technique called bouladjèl, which imitates drums. At that time, Gwoka practice was directly linked to agricultural work, especially sugar cane, coffee and banana cultivation. Post 1946, along with anti-assimilation and anti-colonialism movements, Gwoka spread throughout the island, which marks the beginning of its rehabilitation process. As a consequence, in 1988, lawyer and nationalist activist Félix Cotellon created the Festival de Gwoka Sentann in the city of Sainte-Anne without the support of the municipality. Studies and symposiums were held on the occasion. In 1981, local musician Gérard Lockel published the Traité de Gwoka modên, the first attempt to formalize this musical genre. He claimed that Gwoka was atonal, breaching with western conventions and tastes. By affirming the modality of Gwoka, he situated this music style within the realm of African musical traditions. Paradoxically, under Lockel’s leadership, Gwoka was transformed from a participatory music played outdoors to a presentational music played on stage with European and North American instruments. Musical research show that the instrument can find its roots in the drums and songs of the West African countries (Guinea gulf, Congo…). From the diverse music and dance of their homelands, the slaves elaborated a communication tool, a new form of art, like the creole language: the Gwo Ka. This musical genre is characterised by an African typology: - repetitive form - improvisation - physical movements linked to music - a response between a soloist and choir - a syncopation weak times

Haitian hip-hop

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Foundations (1980s-1990s)#

Rap Kreyòl emerged during the final years of the Duvalier family dictatorship, a totalitarian hereditary dynasty that lasted nearly the latter half of the 20th Century. In the late1980s, Master Dji (George Lys Herard) released songs such as “Vakans” and “Sispann”, sparking a movement that would last generations. Early Rap Kreyòl groups and artists established the Haitian hip-hop movement as a medium for political expression, anti-corruption critique, and a tool of democratic mobilization. Often, hardcore beats are used while the artist raps in Haitian Creole. Rap kreyòl has been part of the Haitian culture since the early 1980s with groups such as Original Rap Staff, King Posee, Rap Kreyòl S.A., Masters of Haiti, Fighters, Blackdo, Fam-Squad, Supa Deno, Prince Berlin, Fantom, Toby Anbakè and Muzion attaining prominence, but lately has become very popular with Haitian youth. Another notable group from the 1990s is Black Leaders. The impact of Black Leaders and its members is lasting. Though known primarily for his role in Black Leaders, Don Roy is still an active contributor to Haitian music across many genres. Since the peak of his notoriety, Don Roy has chosen to create in other genres. While still working in a production capacity in genres such as Rap Kreyòl and Reggae, Don Roy has chosen to create and work with prominent artists of the modern roots/Rasin movement. Many Haitian Rap Kreyòl artists have had rough childhoods and difficult living conditions producing rappers who address socio-economic topics in their lyrics. Though similar to mainstream American hip hop in that materialistic imagery is portrayed or lyricized, the negative aspects of less fortunate Haitian society, such as topics concerning slum life, gang warfare, the drug trade, and poverty, are much more.

Haitian Vodou drumming

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Religious and cultural history and context#

Through the involuntary mass dispersion of slavery, the traditional West African Vodun religions went through the process of Religious syncretism between Roman Catholicism. Due to mass dispersion of the West African population from its indigenous territories, the colonial plantation system created and influenced the Haitian Vodou’s ecotheological perspective. The relationship of Vodou’s belief system lies heavily on ecological systems. The interest in ecotheological ethics are the base of beliefs in Vodou religion, these ethics are ancestor worship, nature spirits, and natural processes such as birth, death, weather, and fertility. In April 2003 Haitian president Jean-Bertrand Aristide officially recognized Vodou as a religion in Haiti. Due to the negative stigma that surrounds the Haitian Vodou, The Haitian government has had a history of previously persecuting those who practiced the religion. Vodou in Haiti was often used as a scapegoat for the country’s issues. This misunderstanding and negative stigma can be noted back to the nation’s founding. The dispute over the validity of the religion, was both beyond and within Haiti.

Huapango

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

()#

The classical brings together a violin, a and a . The classical is characterized by a complex rhythmic structure mixing duple and triple metres which reflect the intricate steps of the dance. When the players sing (in a duet, in a falsetto tone), the violin stops, and the (the rhythm provided by heels hitting the floor) softens. The is danced by men and women as couples. A very popular is , in which two singers alternate pert and funny repartées.

Jarana yucateca

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

The Jarana Dance is Performed in Mérida, Valladolid and Elsewhere Throughout the State of Yucatán#

Jarana performers can be seen performing in Parque Francisco Cantón Rosado in Valladolid, Yucatán, Mexico quite often. Jarana is the name of the dance originally performed during " https://latamliving.com/best-cities-mexico/#vaqueria-jarana " celebration but is seen performed throughout the year in various central parks or zócalos throughout the Yucatán including Mérida, Yucatán’s capital.

A Fusion of Spanish and Maya Culture and Music#

The vaquería occurred when the Spanish conquistador cattle farmers called upon the local Maya to count and brand the cattle on the hacienda. The Spanish allowed the Yucatecas to celebrate for all the hard work that was required and joined in on the vaquería celebration.

Jongo

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Sources#

Carneiro, Edison. “Samba de umbigada.” In: Folguedos Tradicionais. Rio de Janeiro: Funarte/INF, 1982 1961 .
Dias, Paulo. “A outra festa negra.” In: Festa: cultura e sociabilidade na América Portuguesa, edited by I. Jancsó and I. Kantor. São Paulo: Hucitec/Edusp/Fapesp/Imprensa Oficial, 2001.
Lara, Silvia Hunold & Pacheco, Gustavo (orgs.) Memória do jongo: as gravações históricas de Stanley J. Stein. Rio de Janeiro: Folha Seca, 2007.
Meira Monteiro, Pedro & Stone, Michael (orgs.) Cangoma calling: Spirits and Rhythms of Freedom in Brazilian Jongo Slavery Songs. Dartmouth: University of Massachusetts, Luso-Asio-Afro-Brazilian Studies & Theory, vol. 3, 2013. http://www.laabst.net/laabst3/#sthash.yWulDIw0.dpuf
Pacheco, Gustavo. “Jongos.” In: Colin Palmer (ed.) Encyclopedia of African-American Culture and History: The Black Experience in the Americas. New York: Macmillan, 2005.
Ribeiro, Maria de Lourdes Borges. O Jongo. Rio de Janeiro: Funarte/Instituto Nacional do Folclore, 1984.
Stein, Stanley J. Vassouras: A Brazilian Coffee County, 2nd ed. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1985.

External links#

“Pontão de Cultura do Jongo”, web site and cultural program develop by the Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF) and the National Heritage Institute of Brazil (IPHAN) together with 16 communities that practice jongo in Southeast Brazil: http://www.pontaojongo.uff.br
“Jongo no Sudeste”, dossier produced by the National Heritage Institute of Brazil (IPHAN): http://portal.iphan.gov.br/uploads/publicacao/PatImDos_jongo_m.pdf
“Jongo da Serrinha”, first video shot in Serrinha in the late 70’s, YouTube

Jovem Guarda

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

Brazilian rock began in 1955, with Bill Haley, with the arrival of artists such as Elvis Presley and Chuck Berry to success, several young people in Brazil began to admire this new style. In 1956 the first Brazilian rock band, The Jordans, appeared. In 1957, the singer Celly Campello, who is now considered the mother of Brazilian rock, appeared. At the beginning of the 1960s, several Brazilian rock artists and bands began to appear, having a lot of influence from Elvis Presley, Chuck Berry, Jerry Lee Lewis and others. In 1963 the song “She Loves You” by the Beatles was very successful in Brazil; the chorus “Yeah, Yeah, Yeah” became so popular among young people that the chorus became the name of the first Brazilian youth movement, the rock and roll movement. “Iê, ie, iê” became very popular throughout Brazil. In 1965 TV Record in São Paulo decided to show a program named Jovem Guarda every Sunday. The program would present Brazilian rock artists and bands featuring “Iê, iê, iê”. The Jovem Guarda program was presented by three artists who stood out in Iê, iê, iê, the singers Roberto Carlos and Erasmo Carlos, two of the pioneers of Brazilian rock, and the singer Wanderléa. The program was successful from the first episode, for this reason, the name of the movement was replaced by the youth from Iê, iê, iê to Jovem Guarda, after which, the singer Roberto Carlos was responsible for creating several slangs that were used by millions of young people in Brazil until today, including “Barra Limpa Mora!,” “Que Broto Lindo,” “Minha Caranga,” “Eai Bicho” and the most famous “É Uma Brasa Mora!” The Young Guard had mainly the Beatles as an influence, with rock and roll, pop rock and psychedelic rock. The band The Brazilian Bitles was the first to apply psychedelia in Brazilian rock. The name The Brazilian Bitles is a parody of the Beatles, but they are one of the most important bands in the Jovem Guarda. With the end of the program in 1968, the movement began to become weak with the emergence of tropicália, another very famous movement in Brazil. The Jovem Guarda were responsible for revolutionizing music in Brazil. As the country was going through a military dictatorship, many albums by international bands and artists were not sold in Brazil, so it was with the Beatles, that their songs were often released in compilations of greatest international hits. For this reason, several artists and bands from Jovem Guarda made versions of international songs with lyrics totally different from the original, following the same rhythm. It was very popular at the time, and before recording, the artists got in contact with the original composers to be able to record the version. The Jovem Guarda was similar to Beatlemania, with fans screaming and even invading the stage just to see their idols. Jovem Guarda changed the way of thinking of the youth of the time, being a movement that revolutionized Brazilian music with the use of rhythms. more agitated, with the voice screamed in some songs and also by the use of the organ in many songs. One of the most important bands in Jovem Guarda is the band Renato e Seus Blue Caps, who stood out with versions of Beatles songs such as “Menian Linda” version of “I Should Have Known Better” and “Meu Primeiro Amor” version of “You’re Gonna Lose That Girl.” The name Jovem Guarda was born from the phrase of the Russian leader Lenin: “The future belongs to the young guard because the old one is outdated.”

Kaiso

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Terminology#

In the Igbo language ka anyị sonye means “Let’s join”. The word is often used synonymously with calypso today, but often with the connotation that the former is more authentic, showing approval consistent with its original meaning. This word can also be found in an Igbo name. Kaisoluchukwu (Solu, Kaiso). Kaisoluchukwu means “Let’s respect/follow God” in the Igbo language.

Ibibio and Igbo influence on the etymology#

The Ibibio people/Igbo people and the origins of limbo and calypso. The enslaved Ibibios, Igbo and supposedly other slaves would gather, plant two poles on opposite ends, and place a bar across. They would take turns (individually) dancing and negotiating their bodies to go underneath the bar and exit on the opposite end without upsetting it, no matter how low the bar was. The accompanying chant used to egg on and lead the dancer to a successful exit went something like this: “kaiso, kaiso, kaiso” —– meaning “go forward, go ahead, more”. The dance was later named limbo. Ka means go. Iso means forward. Kaiso therefore, means go forward in the Ibibio language of Southeastern Nigeria. The Ibibios and Igbo people who were kidnapped from the Niger Delta and Calabar, shipped across the vast Atlantic Ocean, and subsequently enslaved in the Caribbean islands of Trinidad and Tobago brought their music, language, and traditions with them. In slavery, their customs and traditions got interwoven into the larger slave culture of the area, but the word kaiso (go forward, go ahead, or more) survived. It later became the name of Trinidad and Tobago’s most popular music. Kaiso evolved into calypso and that, too, evolved into soca music. The very fact that the word kaiso was common and accepted enough to be used for naming a dance or song suggests that the Ibibio and Igbo slave population of that area was strong and socially influential.

Lambada

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Maxixe#

The association of Lambada and the idea of ‘dirty dancing’ became quite extensive. The appellative “forbidden dance” was and is often ascribed to the Lambada. This was largely due to its links to Maxixe, a dance of the early 1920s, because of its spicy lyrics and close contact with the dance partner. This idea was further perpetuated by the 1990 movies Lambada and The Forbidden Dance, and the short skirts, typical for the Lambada dance, that were in fashion around 1988. Lambada has many links with Maxixe and also with Forro. They have many figures in common. For example: *Balão apagado, a figure in which the lady rotates her head while it hangs loose. *Peão (also called boneca or toy doll), a figure in which the lady swings her head from side to side.

Latin alternative

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

Rock music has been produced in Iberian America since the late 1950s. Some rock bands started to use unusual instruments such as maracas and quenas. In the late 1960s, artists like Santana started using a different technique to make rock music; by incorporating influences of Latin jazz. Its sound was incorporated by young Latino-players in the US, as an answer to the rock en Español movement in Americas and Spain led by bands like Héroes del Silencio, Caifanes or Los Prisioneros. In the early 1990s, it was used by Mexican bands such as Maldita Vecindad and Café Tacuba, they were accepted on the Latino circuit in the US, especially by the Mexican community. Subsequently, experimental musician Lynda Thomas earned recognition and commercial success with alternative music in the same decade. With the passage of time and many musical styles in the US-Latin, Latin alternative has become as diverse as the rock music genre itself. Today, many music journalists and fans regard Latin alternative as a subgenre of rock en Español, and like rock en Español, it may be further divided into more specific genres of music.

Latin ballad

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Origin and evolution#

Music fans can find roots of “Ballads” in pre-war years. Blues and jazz in the United States underwent transformations that were brewing since the 1930s and 1940s and that led to the origin of new rhythms. Bing Crosby’s “White Christmas”, Frank Sinatra, Marlene Dietrich’s “Lili Marleen” and Dooley Wilson’s “As Time Goes By” were examples of early Ballad singers. Rock and roll in the mid-1950s transforms contemporary types of music in terms of how to sing them and instrumentation, which includes electric instruments in addition to the traditional balladism. Ballads spread in the acetates records and in American cinema to the world also influencing. One of the main diffusers was Elvis Presley, when he diversified his music, in addition to rock and roll, cultivating the new ballad, influencing the romantic Sentimental ballad of the late decade (led by Paul Anka “You are my Destiny”,1958, “Put your Head on my Shoulder”,1959, and Neil Sedaka ). Postwar years 1950s, Latin America, Europe and the other continents received American musical influence and produced reissues of American ballads with new lyrics in native languages for more than a decade. Trio Los Panchos gained latin ballad hits such as “Besame Mucho”, “Sabor a Mí”, “Solamente Una Vez”, and “Quizas, Quizas, Quizas”. The Latin or romantic ballad has its origin in the Latin American bolero in the 1950s (Lucho Gatica, Leo Marini), but also in the romantic song in Italian (Domenico Modugno) and French (Charles Aznavour, George Mustaki) in the 1960s and 1970s. In Mexico, the ballad recorded as such is “Sonata de Amor” (Sonata of Love) of Mario Álvarez in 1961. In 1965 the famous bolero singer-songwriter Armando Manzanero, sang his ballad, “Pobres besos míos” (My Poor Kisses). Latin ballad was popular during the 1970s in Latin America, where artists such as Mocedades, Emmanuel, Julio Iglesias, José José, José Luis Rodriguez, Camilo Sesto, Raphael, Roberto Carlos, Rocío Dúrcal and others released hits. The main hits of Mocedades “Eres Tú”, José José were “El triste” (The Sad One), “La nave del olvido” (The Ship of Forgetfullness), “Te extraño” (I Miss You, also written by Manzanero), “Amar y querer” (To love and To want). By Roberto Carlos(singer) the songs “Amigos” (Friends) or “Detalles” (Details). By Camilo Sesto the hits “Algo de Mí” (Something from Me), “Perdóname” (Forgive Me), “Si Tú Te Vas” (If you leave), “Melina”, “Jamás” (Never), “Todo por Nada” (All for Nothing), “Fresa Salvaje” (Wild Strawberry) . Rocío Dúrcal enjoyed Latin America success and was known as “La Dama de la canción” (The Lady of Song). These songs gained hit in Latin America. The heyday of the ballad was romantic in the 1980s, where artists such as Julio Iglesias, Amanda Miguel, Ricardo Montaner, Diego Verdaguer and others released a big number of hits. The main hits of Julio Iglesias “To All the Girls I’ve Loved Before”, Amanda Miguel were “Así no te amará jamás” (This Way He Will Never Love You), by 1984 among many others that were released in Los Angeles. These songs are widely known today in Southern California. In the course of their existence the genre merged with diverse rhythms to form several variants, such as romantic salsa and cumbia aside others. From the 1990s, globalization and media internationalization processes that integrated contributed to the ballad’s spread international spread and further homogenize around a common Latin identity. As part of the Latin Americanization of the United States and the dominant presence in the genre of multinational record labels, Miami has become the main producer of ballads which in turn has fed back trends of migration of Latino and Hispanic performers, producers and musicians to that city. By the turn of the 2010s however, Latin ballads have begun to lose popularity as uptempo Latin genres such as bachata, reggaeton, and Spanish-language electropop music have gained popularity with the Hispanic audience in the radio.

Latin Christian music

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Latin American artists#

Notable artists include Brazilian singers Ana Paula Valadão and Aline Barros http://www.billboard.com/artist/278612/aline-barros/chart , Panamanian musician Santiago Stevenson (d. 2007), Jaime Murrell, Luis “Funky” Marrero, Puerto Rican rapper in the genre of hip-hop, reggaeton, and Christian contemporary music, Willy Redimi2 González Dominican rapper in Latin hip-hop, trap, and Christian contemporary music, Venezuelan pop singer José Luis Rodríguez, Daniel Calveti and Christian Sebastia, Mexican singers/pastors Jesús Adrián Romero, Marcos Witt, and Armando Flores, and singers Alejandro Alonso (musician), Marco Barrientos, Ecuador’s Paulina Aguirre, Salvadorian Álvaro Torres, Colombia’s Alex Campos and Ericson Molano, and Mexican band Rojo. Other artists include Samuel Hernández, Roberto Orellana, Annette Moreno, and Christian singers like Daniela G Mangrum.

Latin hip-hop

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

West Coast#

In the late 1980s and early 1990s, most Latin rap came from New York and the West Coast of the United States. Due to the heaviest Puerto Rican migration to New York City in the ’50s, during the ’70s, the birth of Latin Hip-Hop involved Hispanic from the Caribbean island. Early hip-hop from the United States had a significant influence on early Puerto Rican hip-hop pioneers such as Ruben DJ, DJ Negro, and Vico-C. Mellow Man Ace, from Cuba, was the first Hispanic artist to have a major bilingual single, the 1989 track “Mentirosa”. This song went platinum, leading Mellow Man Ace to be described as the “Godfather of Latin rap” and inducted into the Hip-Hop Hall of Fame inductee. In 1990, fellow West Coast artist Kid Frost further brought Hispanics to the rap forefront with his hit song “La Raza”. In 1991, Kid Frost, Mellow Man, A.L.T. and several other Latin rappers formed the rap super group Latin Alliance and released a self-titled album which featured the hit “Lowrider (On the Boulevard)”. The remake of the song Tequila was an A.L.T. hit later that year. Cypress Hill, of which Mellow Man Ace was a member before going solo, would become the first Hispanic rap group to reach platinum status in 1991. The group was also the first major hip-hop music group to include Spanish and Latin slang in their lyrics. Cypress Hill gained hit “Insane in the Brain”(1993) and Platinum record. Ecuadorian-born American rapper Gerardo received heavy rotation on video and radio for his single Rico Suave. While commercially watered-down, his album enjoyed a status of being one of the first mainstream Spanglish CDs on the market. Johnny J was a multi-platinum songwriter, music producer, and rapper who was perhaps best known for his production on Tupac Shakur’s albums All Eyez on Me and Me Against the World. He also produced the 1990 single Knockin’ Boots for his classmate Candyman’s album Ain’t No Shame in My Game, which eventually went platinum thanks to the single. N2Deep, A Lighter Shade of Brown, Proper Dos, and Slow Pain were popular in Latin rap scene. In the mid-1990s, the success of LA’s Cypress Hill led to additional Latin hip-hop artists finding label support. Delinquent Habits were a horn-sampling trio that found MTV support for their breakout bilingual single “Tres Delinquentes” in 1996. By the early 2000s, two Mexico-born, United States-raised Latin hip-hop acts found success on major labels. LA’s Akwid fused banda with hip-hop on hits like “No Hay Manera” while Milwaukee’s Kinto Sol told tales of Mexican immigrant life over more minimalist beats. Mr.Criminal, Mr.Capone-E, Mr.Knightowl, Ms.Krazie, Charlie Row Campo and Mr.Sancho released Latin and Chicano rap CDs.

Latin house

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Origins#

In the second half of the 1980s, some of the pioneers of house music of Latin-American descent gave birth to this genre by releasing house records in Spanish. Early examples include Jesse Velez’s “Girls Out on the Floor” 1985, “Amor Puertorriqueño” by Raz on DJ International and “Break 4 Love” by Raze.

1990s to present#

In the 1990s, a new generation of producers and labels broke into the market. Nervous Records released “Quiero Saber” by the Latin Kings, produced by Todd Terry, as well as “Everything’s All Right” by Arts of Rhythm and “Philly The Blunt” by Trinidad. Strictly Rhythm employed producer Armand van Helden, who released “Pirates of The Caribbean Vol. III”. Songs from the same label include DJ Dero’s “Sube”, The Tribe’s “Go-san-do”, R.A.W.’s “Asuca” produced by Erick Morillo, Rare Arts’ “Boricua Posse”, Escandalo’s “Mas Buena” and Fiasco’s “Las Mujeres” produced by Norty Cotto, Latin Kaos’ “El Bandolero” and “Muevete Mama” and “Sugar Cane” by Afro-Cube. During the same period (1991 -1992), Chicago native Pizarro produced “The Five Tones”, New Perspective EP, “Plastica”, “Caliente” and “Perdoname”. Other producers like Ralphi Rosario and Masters at Work created Latin house classics, for instance Ralphie’s production “Da-Me-Lo” and his remix of Albita’s “No se parece a nada” as well as “Sul Chu Cha” by Rosabel, the Louie Vega and Kenny Gonzales remix of “Sume Sigh Say” by House of Gypsies (Todd Terry), and “Robi Rob’s Boriqua Anthem” by C+C Music Factory. Hybrid experiments were put on the market by the likes of New York’s Proyecto Uno, who combined house and merengue in their LPs Todo el mundo and In da House. Their female counterpart is Lisa M from Puerto Rico, who can be heard on the No lo derrumbes and Flavor of the Latin albums. Another merengue-house record worth of mention is “Así mamacita” by Henry Rivera on Los Angeles Aqua Boogie. Also from Los Angeles we had producer DJ Juanito who released Latin house hits like ‘A Mover la colita’ and ‘Esa Nena Linda". The duo Sandy & Papo are known for their LPs Sandy & Papo and Otra Vez. During the mid-1990s, Cutting broke into the Latin house scene and became the most representative label of this genre. Cutting’s DJ Norty Cotto was deemed the most representative producer of Latin house. Among the various hits are 2 in a Room’s “Las Mujeres”, “Carnival” and “Dar la vuelta”, Fun City’s “Padentro” and “Baila”, Sancocho’s “Tumba la Casa”, “Alcen las manos” and “Que siga el party” (LP) and Los Compadres’ “La Rumba”. Norty Cotto’s mixed compilations also became classics. Fulanito and their LP El hombre mas famoso de la tierra is a combination of house and Latin-American rhythms from that time. El General’s “Muevelo” was another of the tunes of that time remixed to the sounds of Latin house by DJ/producers Pablo Pabanor Ortiz and Erick More Morillo, and Latin House Party 2 in collaboration with producers Rafael Torres, Ray Abraxas and Davidson Ospina. Today many other Latin house artists have emerged to create many successful songs of this genre, and also remixes.

Latin jazz

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

“Spanish tinge”—The Cuban influence in early jazz and proto-Latin jazz#

African American music began incorporating Afro-Cuban musical motifs in the 19th century, when the habanera (Cuban contradanza) gained international popularity. The habanera was the first written music to be rhythmically based on an African motif. The habanera rhythm (also known as congo, tango-congo, or tango ) can be thought of as a combination of tresillo and the backbeat. Wynton Marsalis considers tresillo to be the New Orleans “clave,” although technically, the pattern is only half a clave. “St. Louis Blues” (1914) by W. C. Handy has a habanera-tresillo bass line. Handy noted a reaction to the habanera rhythm included in Will H. Tyler’s “Maori”: “I observed that there was a sudden, proud and graceful reaction to the rhythm…White dancers, as I had observed them, took the number in stride. I began to suspect that there was something Negroid in that beat.” After noting a similar reaction to the same rhythm in “La Paloma”, Handy included this rhythm in his “St. Louis Blues”, the instrumental copy of “Memphis Blues”, the chorus of “Beale Street Blues”, and other compositions. Jelly Roll Morton considered the tresillo-habanera (which he called the Spanish tinge) to be an essential ingredient of jazz. The habanera rhythm can be heard in his left hand on songs like “The Crave” (1910, recorded 1938). Now in one of my earliest tunes, “New Orleans Blues,” you can notice the Spanish tinge. In fact, if you can’t manage to put tinges of Spanish in your tunes, you will never be able to get the right seasoning, I call it, for jazz—Morton (1938: Library of Congress Recording). Although the exact origins of jazz syncopation may never be known, there is evidence that the habanera-tresillo was there at its conception. Buddy Bolden, the first known jazz musician, is credited with creating the big four, a habanera-based pattern. The big four (below) was the first syncopated bass drum pattern to deviate from the standard on-the-beat march. As the example below shows, the second half of the big four pattern is the habanera rhythm. It is probably safe to say that by and large the simpler African rhythmic patterns survived in jazz … because they could be adapted more readily to European rhythmic conceptions. Some survived, others were discarded as the Europeanization progressed. It may also account for the fact that patterns such as tresillo have . . . remained one of the most useful and common syncopated patterns in jazz—Schuller (1968). The Cuban influence is evident in many pre-1940s jazz tunes, but rhythmically, they are all based on single-celled motifs such as tresillo, and not do not contain an overt two-celled, clave-based structure. “Caravan”, written by Juan Tizol and first performed in 1936, is an early proto-Latin jazz composition. Mongo Santamaría recorded ever green “Watermelon Man” in 1962. Hank Mobley, Kenny Dorham, and Willie Bobo released latin jazz albums. Willie Bobo fused jazz, latin, and R&B music.

Latin metal

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

An early mention of the term comes from critic Robert Christgau, who referred to Carlos Santana’s music from the 1970s as “Latin-metal pop,” making it a possible forerunner in the genre. Latin metal started in the 1970s and 1980s, originating in many countries of Latin America, thanks to the increasing worldwide popularity of heavy metal and heavy rock from Europe (obviously including Spain, with bands such as Baron Rojo and Angeles del Infierno singing in Spanish and reaching international success in the 1980s) and United States, with Argentina having an important scene as well (Rata Blanca, V8). It may also have profited from the “Latin explosion” in the United States of the 1990s, though some critics contend that the gap between Ricky Martin-style pop and metal is too great for Latin metal to have profited greatly. Still, record companies in the 1990s sought to profit from the rise of Latin pop, as evidenced from the Metalo compilation of Latin metal bands by the Grita! Records label, which included songs by Ill Niño and Puya, and bands from the 1990s such as Sepultura and Soulfly are cited as predecessors in the genre. In the United States, Ill Niño is probably the best-known exponent of the genre; their first two albums (with “philosophical and bilingual lyrics” about such topics as growing up fatherless) were commercially successful and got them strong radio play in for instance the San Antonio area.

Latin pop

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History#

Latin pop first reached a global audience through the work of bandleader Sergio Mendes in the mid-1960s, although artists like Carmen Miranda popularized Latin samba music in Hollywood decades before this. In later decades, it was defined by the romantic ballads that legendary artists such as Julio Iglesias or Roberto Carlos produced in the 1970s. Latin pop is one of the most popular Latin music genres today. Popular artists include Los del Río, Jennifer Lopez, Alejandro Sanz, Thalía, Luis Miguel, Selena, Paulina Rubio, Shakira, Carlos Vives, Ricky Martin, Gloria Trevi and Enrique Iglesias. Ricky Martin is considered to be the King of Latin Pop.

Latin R&B

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Characteristics#

Vocals include a majority of singing and occasionally rapping, in Spanish. The lyrics in Latin R&B are often about sadness, heartbreak, and sex.

History#

Latin R&B can trace its roots to Latin pop songs with an American R&B and new jack swing influence, such as the Selena and Barrio Boyzz song “Donde Quiera Que Estés” released in 1994. According to Rolling Stone, Spanish-language singles by Álex Rose, Rauw Alejandro and Paloma Mami, which borrow from R&B, reached a global audience. and most notably Sech’s “Otro Trago”, which peaked in number one in Spain, Argentina, Colombia and Mexico. In the United States, “Otro Trago” reached the top of the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart and peaked at No. 34 in the Hot 100.

Latin rock

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Origins (1950s–1960s)#

Rock and roll music of the 1950s originated from a variety of sources including rhythm and blues, blues, gospel, country, bluegrass, western swing, and Tin Pan Alley pop music. Also, there was some influence of the traditional Latin music. Caribbean rhythms like calypso were used in surf music; and there were some rock and roll songs based on cha-cha-chá or mambo. Latin rock was born in the United States during the late 1950s, though the term was not yet created. In 1958 an adaptation of a Mexican folk song called “La Bamba” was recorded by the Chicano rock artist Ritchie Valens. That same year, instrumental rock band the Champs released “Tequila”, a song that incorporates clear Latin sounds and was composed by the band’s chicano saxophonist Danny Flores). During the 1960s, there were more examples of rock artists like Thee Midniters, Question Mark & the Mysterians, Sam the Sham and the Pharaohs or Sir Douglas Quintet that included Latin rhythms on their compositions. Also Chicano rock became popular in California; although not all of these can be considered early Latin rock artists since many of them lacked the Latin folk influences. In some Latin American countries, Latin rock started to develop as well. In Peru, Colombia, Argentina, but specially Brazil where Tropicália appeared in the mid-1960s with the first releases of Os Mutantes, Gal Costa and Caetano Veloso from 1967 to 1970, a music movement that merged rock music with bossa nova, psychedelia and other Latin elements, and this can be regarded as the main root of the genre.

Latin trap

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Characteristics#

Latin trap is a subgenre of Latin hip hop, generally taking influence from Southern hip hop, Hip-Hop in general, and possibly influenced by Sound Cloud rap as well as already established Puerto Rican genres like reggaeton and Urbano music. Vocals include a bend of rapping and singing using synthesizers and autotune in Spanish or in Spanglish, while still maintaining the trap style sonic circuitry. The lyrics in Latin trap are often about street life, violence, sex, drugs, and people who pride themselves in living on the other side of the law.

Lovers rock

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

The roots of lovers rock lie in the last days of the rocksteady era and early days of reggae, with Jamaican and American singers such as Ken Boothe, Johnny Nash and John Holt enjoying international hits with versions of well-known love songs. A style suited to the London reggae scene, lovers rock represented an apolitical counterpoint to the conscious Rastafarian sound dominant in Jamaica at the time, a continuation of the soulful and commonly love-themed rocksteady style, based on singers like Alton Ellis, who were not very optimistic about the rise of Rastafarian reggae. Rooted in the sound systems of South London, the style had particular appeal amongst women and produced many female stars including Carroll Thompson. Louisa Mark was aged 14 when she had a major lovers rock hit with her version of Robert Parker’s “Caught You in a Lie” in 1975. This spawned the distinctive young girl female sound associated with early lovers rock. Simplicity formed in 1975 and released their first hit “To Be in Love” produced by Coxson; the B-side was the Emotions’ US R&B song, “A Feeling Is a Feeling”. They were headhunted by Neville King who produced their UK reggae chart hit “Black Is Our Colour”. This was followed by the husband and wife production team of Dennis and Eve Harris who then had a big hit with T.T. Ross’s “Last Date”. Dennis Harris then set up a new record label, Lover’s Rock, at his South East London Studio on Upper Brockley Road along with John Kpiaye and Dennis Bovell, which gave the new genre a name. Beres Hammond, Horace Andy, Kofi, Sanchez, Samantha Rose, and Marcia Aitken. Maxi Priest gained lovers rock hits such as “Wild World”(1988) and “Close to You”(1990). Seminal punk/rock/ska/reggae crossover band the Clash popularised the term, introducing it to a wider mainstream audience, by including a song called “Lover’s Rock” on their 1979 signature double LP, London Calling. The popularity of lovers rock continued through the next decade. In the 1980s, the Fashion label was successful with UK audiences, and the Revue label had a chart-topper in 1986 with Boris Gardiner’s “I Wanna Wake Up with You”. In the 1990s, artists such as Mike Anthony, Peter Hunnigale and Donna Marie enjoyed success with the genre, and several British stars performed at Reggae Sunsplash.

Lundu (dance)

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History#

The interconnectedness of Lusophone countries dates back to the Atlantic Slave Trade, between Portugal, Brazil and regions of Africa. In the 15th century, the Portuguese were the primary exporters of African slaves to the Americas, and with slaves came their musical traditions. Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, there was a massive Brazilian presence in Angola, enabling a cultural exchange between the two Portuguese colonies. This exchange enabled subtle amalgamations of musical styles between Angola, Brazil and other African slave trade countries. The establishment of a creole population in Brazil led to further cultural developments in language, religion and art. In 1859, French journalist Charles Ribeyrolles described Afro-Brazilian free practices on a fazenda in Rio de Janeiro province:

Mangue bit

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Origin#

The basis for Mangue started towards the end of Brazil’s military dictatorship at the beginning of the 1980s. The relaxation of censorship increased the availability of imported music, especially from the United States and the United Kingdom, leading to an increase of Brazilian-made rock music. In Recife, university students, including some of the founding characters of the movement, DJ Renato L. and Fred 04, started a radio show called Décadas, further facilitating the influence of rock music, especially underground music from England, leading to a large increase in Recife-based rock bands. Fred 04 notes that when Mundo Livre S/A began in 1984, poor economic circumstances and the lack of a music circuit in Recife, made it especially difficult for them, and similar music groups to find places to play. In the early 90s, Paulo Andre Pires, who would become Nação Zumbi’s impresario, began producing shows in Recife and invited both local and international bands to perform. Despite being both being cited as founders for the Mangue movement, Chico Science and Nação Zumbi (CSNZ), and Mundo Livre S/A have different influences and backgrounds. Chico Science was born to a lower-middle-class family in the neighborhood of Rio Doce in the city of Olinda. Having grown up being surrounded by regional folk music he also was heavily influenced by music of Recife such as maracatu, ciranda, embolada, and côco. Chico with his friend, Jorge du Peixe, joined several groups; Legião Hip Hop, Orla Orbe, and Loustal, before finding and meeting members of Lamento Negro, a bloco afro specializing in samba-reggae, in 1990 and forming what would be CSNZ. Lead singer Fred 04, described the idea for the band as “a fusion, a bridge between Johnny Rotten of the punk band. the Sex Pistols and Jorge Ben a pioneering Brazilian pop musician who fuses funk. soul. and samba and Moreira da Silva a samba musician from the 1930s and ’40s , understand? …. It would be a type of new wave but very Brazilian, really very Brazilian, that would be identified neither as rock nor as MPB an acronym for Música Popular Brasileira, “Brazilian Popular Music” “. When first hearing Chico Science in a mashup performance of Loustal and Lamento Negro, he thought the combination of the local/global juxtaposition, as well as the difference in geographical location, could launch what would become the Mangue movement into something that would highlight Recife’s diversity.

Maracatu

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Maracatu Nação#

Maracatu nação (also known as maracatu de baque virado: “maracatu of the turned-around beat”), the most well-known of the maracatu genres, is an Afro-Brazilian performance genre practiced in the state of Pernambuco, mainly in the cities of Recife and Olinda. The term, often shortened simply to nação (“nation”, pl. nações), refers not only to the performance but to the performing groups themselves. Maracatu nação’s origins lie in the investiture ceremonies of the Reis do Congo (Kings of Congo), who were enslaved people who were granted leadership roles within the enslaved community by the Portuguese administration. When slavery was abolished in Brazil in 1888, the institution of the Kings of Congo ceased to exist. Nonetheless, nações continued to choose symbolic leaders and evoke coronation ceremonies for those leaders. Although a maracatu performance is secular, traditional nações are grouped around Candomblé or Jurema (Afro-Brazilian religions) terreiros (bases), and the principles of Candomblé infuse their activities. Traditional nações perform by parading with a drumming group of 80–100, a singer and chorus, and a coterie of dancers and stock characters including a king and a queen. Dancers and stock characters dress and behave to imitate the Portuguese royal court of the Baroque period. The performance also enacts pre-colonial African traditions, like parading the calunga, a doll representing tribal deities that is kept throughout the year in a special place in the nação’s headquarters. The calungas, usually female, are traditionally made of either wax and wood or of cloth. They may have clothing made for them in a similar Baroque style to the costumes worn by the other members of the royal court. The calunga is sacred, and carrying this spiritual figurehead of the group is a great responsibility for the female Dama de Paço (Lady-in-Waiting) of the cortège. The musical ensemble consists of alfaia (a large wooden rope-tuned drum), gonguê (a metal cowbell), tarol (a shallow snare drum), caixa-de-guerra (or “war-snare”), abê (a gourd shaker enveloped in a net of beads), and mineiro (a metal cylindrical shaker filled with metal shot or small dried seeds). The song form is call and response between a solo singer and (usually) a female chorus. Today there are around 20 nações operating in the cities of Recife and Olinda. Although several have an unbroken line of activity going back to the 19th century, most have been set up in recent decades. Well-known nações include Estrela Brilhante, Leão Coroado, and Porto Rico. Each year they perform during the Carnival period in Recife and Olinda. Maracatu Nação Pernambuco, while not a traditional maracatu, was primarily responsible for introducing the genre to overseas audiences in the 1990s. The genre has inspired the establishment of performing groups in a number of cities outside Brazil, including Lisbon, Toronto, Quebec City, New York City, Austin, Washington, D.C., Cologne, Berlin, Hamburg, Vienna, Lyon, Stockholm, London, Edinburgh, Brighton, Madison, Oakland, San Diego, Seattle, Portland, Manchester, Bristol, Oxford, Melbourne, Brisbane, and Madrid.

Maracatu Nação

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History#

The oldest record of Maracatu Nação dates back to 1711, but the year of its origin is uncertain. However, it is clear that it originated in Pernambuco and has transformed ever since. There are Maracatu Nação groups all over Brazil, as well as abroad, especially in Europe and North America.

Parade#

The maracatu parades are an example of the ancient African courts, since the blacks, when kidnapped and sold into slavery, carried their titles of nobility back to Brazil. The parade is formed by a flag or banner opening the wings. At the back is the dama do paço, who carries the mystical calunga, representing all the group’s spiritual entities. Respectively, the iabás (popularly called baianas) follow and, shortly afterwards, the court, the king and queen of the maracatu, titles handed down hereditarily. This wing represents the nobility of the Nação. On each side are the slaves or catirinas, usually young women wearing chiton dresses. Keeping the rhythm of the parade, the batuqueiros follow. The instruments are diverse: alfaias, boxes or taróis, ganzás and abês, these led by women who are at the head of the group and who make their playing a spectacle in itself.

Mariachi

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Name#

The origin of the word is disputed, but prominent theories attribute it to deep roots. One states that it comes from the name of the wood used to make the dance platform. Another states that mariachi comes from the indigenous name of a tree called pilla or cirimo; yet another states that it came from an image locally called María H (pronounced Mari-Ache). It is possible to use the terms mariachi and ranchera interchangeably. Although they have different meanings, one can describe mariachi music as ranchera music and vice versa. Mariachi refers to a Mexican folk music tradition within a larger genre called ranchera music (music from the ranch). Mariachi refers to many things: a certain body of repertoire, a musical style, a robust singing style, a solo singer or performer in a charro suit, and/ or an ensemble. The oldest references to mariachi documented are more than 100 certificates of baptisms, burials and marriages in which the Mariachi ranch appears, between 1832 and 1850. It was located near the river Santiago, in Nayarit. The word mariachi was once thought to have derived from the French word (‘marriage’), dating from the French intervention in Mexico in the 1860s, related to the music’s appearance at weddings. This was a common explanation on record jackets and travel brochures but was disproven with the appearance of documents that showed that the word existed before this invasion: In 1981, a letter written by Catholic priest Cosme Santa Ana to the archbishop in 1852 was discovered in the archives of a church, where he complains about the noise as well as the drinking and gambling antics of the “mariachis,” long before the French occupation.

Maxixe (dance)

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External links#

Example of dance in YouTube
The Maxixe

Merengue típico

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Early origins#

Merengue first appears in the Caribbean in the 1850s. The earliest documented evidence of merengue in the Dominican Republic are newspaper articles complaining about this “lascivious” dance displacement of the earlier tumba. Early merengue was played on stringed instruments, but the accordion came to the island in the 1880s, introduced by German traders, and quickly became the primary instrument in merengue. Up until the 1930s, the music was considered immoral. Its more descriptive and colorful name, perico ripia’o (literally “ripped parrot” in Spanish) is said to have been the name of a bordello in Santiago where the music was played. Moralists tried to ban the music and the provocative dance that accompanied it, but with little success. Dictator Rafael Leónidas Trujillo brought accordionists with him on the campaign trail, and once he took power, he ensured that merengue was embraced as a national music by all classes of Dominicans.

Merenhouse

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Early development in the 1980s and the 1990s#

The hybrid music known as Merenrap, Merenhouse, or Latin house was formed in the 1980s in New York City. Jorge Oquendo, an entrepreneur, encouraged artists to blend these genres. Lisa M mixed merengue with hip hop/rap in her second album released in 1990. Latin house, in turn, combines house, rap, Latin rhythms and Caribbean music.

Dominican migration to New York City in late twentieth century#

Dominican Merengue can be considered an expression of Dominican transnationalism, as there was a significant shift in the migration of Dominicans to New York in the twentieth century. As a musical hybrid, merenhouse was popular with a generation of bicultural youth growing up in New York with Dominican roots that combined both aspects of their culture. Merenhouse is also a symbol of national identity to Dominican Americans. The early 1990s saw a huge increase in immigration to the United States from the Dominican Republic due largely to the greatly deteriorating economic situation of the Dominican Republic in the 1980s and early 1990s. New York City saw the bulk of this initial Dominican population growth, and once those first Dominican immigrates got settled in, New York became the hub of Dominican culture in the US. “By 1990, an estimated 900,000 Dominicans — 12 percent of the country’s population — lived in New York City alone”. Dominicans also “tend to be more concentrated residing exclusively in barrios or ghettos like Washington Heights, Manhattan-Inwood, home to 59% of Dominicans registered by the INS”. This potent concentration of Dominicans all in one place allowed them to bring in their own culture while they assimilated into the melting pot of cultures found in New York. Merengue is one example of the many pieces of Dominican culture brought during this period of immigration, which was a key element to the creation of Merenhouse.

Mexican cumbia

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Origins#

The cumbia has its origins in Colombia going back at least as far as the early 1800s, with elements from indigenous and black music traditions. In the 1940s, Colombian singer Luis Carlos Meyer emigrated to Mexico, where he worked with Mexican orchestra director Rafael de Paz. In the 1950s, he recorded what many believe to be the first cumbia recorded outside of Colombia, “El gallo Tuerto y La Cumbia Cienaguera”. He recorded other hits like “La historia”. Thus Cumbia gained popularity in Mexico. In the 1970s Aniceto Molina also emigrated to Mexico, where he joined the group from Guerrero, La Luz Roja de San Marcos, and recorded many popular tropical cumbia songs like “El Gallo Mojado”, “El Peluquero”, and “La Mariscada”. In the 1970s, Rigo Tovar enjoyed success with his fusion of cumbia music with ballads and rock.

Mexican hip-hop

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

The first Mexican rap record started since 1979 by the comedian Guillermo Ríos aka Memo Ríos under his stage name MC Aplausos rapping Sugarhill Gang “Rappers Delight” instrumental on his adaptations “El Cotorreo”. Memo Ríos was not expect that many years later Mexicans started to rap and had success, it was a coincidence and a mistake he stated himself on a video in 2023 talking about his story on how it become the first Mexican rap song in history. The background of the first Mexican rap song started by what he does in his comedian shows by having topics like the daily life in México, Mexican’s attitude, Mexican pop culture and celebrities with their slangs and sense of humor, there was no inspiration on the hip-hop culture or any other kind. Memo’s friend Elias Cervantes was a director of the radio station Radio Variedades along with Cervantes friends had great relationships with the radio stations, borrows the Rappers Delight record to Memo. Memo was thinking too much to make his Spanish Rappers Delight version, he took three days to write his lyrics, he went to record his song on the studio Orbimex which was a small record studio that made it possible to record the first Mexican rap song ever made. After he recorded his first rap song, Memo continued to record more rap parody songs such as “Pedro Infante Murió”, “Muy Delgada” (Vanilla Ice: Ice, Ice Baby parody), “Memotronic” (Technotronic: This Beat is Technotronic parody), “Cosa Loca” (The Troggs: Wild Thing parody) and “Mi Bella Genio” (Dimples D: Sucker DJ (A Witch For Love) parody) in the early 1990s. After 33 years of Mexican Hip-Hop, in 2023 Spotify started to make a mural based on their playlist “50 Años de Hip-Hop Mexicano” in Mexico City that locates on Avenida Chapultepec 68 street on the Doctores neighborhood for celebrating 50 Years of Hip-Hop, curated by Toy Selectah by selecting the best hits from old school rap thru the new school rap. Memo Ríos appears on the mural that is the only one that doesn’t have his music catalog on Spotify along with Control Machete, Cartel de Santa, Akwid, Alemán, Gera MX, Santa Fe Klan, MC Davo, Snow Tha Product, , Lefty SM & among others. The hip-hop movement started since 1991 by groups as Sindicato del Terror (SDT) & 4to Del Tren both from State of Mexico, in 1996 is the beginning of reached with the emergence of the group from Monterrey, Nuevo León, Control Machete were the first hip-hop group to make rap genre mainstream successful by promoting their music videos on MTV. Control Machete were the first hip-hop group to earn money with music, to sign massive record deal contract such as Universal Music Group & Polygram, having tours on Latin America, United States, Spain & Germany & having the exact rap production formula as the American hip-hop industry standards. It has evolved to spanning more artists like Cartel de Santa, Dharius, Akwid, Kinto Sol, Alemán, Gera MX, Dyablo, Aczino, and many more.

Mexican pop music

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1970s and 1980s#

On September 13, 1969, Televisa, a Mexican company and the world’s largest Spanish-language television network launched the variety show Siempre en Domingo (Always on Sundays) hosted by Raúl Velasco. Siempre en Domingo became one of the most popular TV shows in Latin America with about 420 million television viewers around the world (according to Televisa and their partners). Siempre en Domingo was a TV show where many artists performed and debuted. At the time, an appearance was a hallmark of success and performers considered an appearance on the program as a guarantee of stardom similar to The Ed Sullivan Show in the United States. Velasco encouraged many Mexican singers such as Lucía Méndez, Lucero, Emmanuel, Mijares, Gloria Trevi, Timbiriche, and Lorenzo Antonio, and helped many of these to become full-fledged stars within the county. Moreover, Velasco presented foreign artists such as Julio Iglesias, Raphael, Miguel Bosé, Chayanne and Ricky Martin. Artists that would bring pop music to Latin America, were, in part by Siempre en Domingo, helped in that effort thanks for their appearances in the program. In 1970 Jose Jose jumped to fame when he sang “El Triste” at the Festival de la Canción Latina. He didn’t win the prestigious singing contest but his performance was so memorable that fans across Latin America considered him the actual winner. The romantic balada, which gained popularity in the 1970s, continued to dominate the Latin music charts in the 1980s. Veteran balladeers who continued to be popular in this decade include Julio Iglesias, José José, Roberto Carlos, and Juan Gabriel. The Latin balada is characterized by its bolero origin by fusing music from the United States with pop, R&B, and rock. Female balada singers that became topped the Latin music charts includes Ana Gabriel, Daniela Romo, Rocío Dúrcal, Gloria Estefan, and Marisela. Notably, several baladas were Spanish-language covers of songs originally performed in Italian. Notable Spanish-language covers of Italian songs include “Maldita primavera” by Yuri, “Toda la Vida” by Emmanuel, “Yo No Te Pido la Luna” by Daniela Romo, and “Tan Enamorados” by Ricardo Montaner. The 1980s gave rise to the teenage groups Menudo, Timbiriche, and Los Chicos, as well as emerging teenage stars such as Luis Miguel and Alejandra Ávalos. By 1988, however, the aforementioned Luis Miguel would transform into an adult superstar at age 18 with the hit La Incondicional (1989). Not too far behind was former Los Chicos’ member Chayanne as he became a leading pop star by the end of the decade, with his 1987 hit Fiesta en America. As young stars begin to rise in Latin music, veterans such as Julio Iglesias, José José, Juan Gabriel, and José Luis Rodríguez El Puma continue their dominance in Latin music. Tejano Music starts to give little rise after Mazz crosses over to Mexico after their albums Una Noche Juntos and No Te Olvidare win Grammys. Aside from the baladas, several Latin pop artists and bands performed variety of Spanish-language pop and dance music targeted to the younger audience. These include Yuri, Marisela, Mecano, Miguel Bosé, Timbiriche, Menudo, and Flans. “Que Te Pasa” became the longest-running chart of the 1980s, spending 16 weeks on top of the Billboard Hot Latin Tracks chart. Juan Gabriel and Rocío Dúrcal collaborated with Chuck Anderson to incorporate mariachi arrangements on their ballads. Child pop singers such as Luis Miguel, Pedrito Fernández, and Lucerito had a prepubescent following. During the 1980s songwriters like Guillermo Méndez Guiú, Rafael Pérez Botija or Aureo Baqueiro wrote songs for singers like Yuri, Lucía Méndez and musical groups like Timbiriche, Flans and Fandango. These groups headed the radio charts in Mexico and launched international career by promoting their music in Latin America. Other pop music icons in Mexico during the 1980s include José María Napoleón, Magneto, Dulce, Franco de Vita, Juan Luis Guerra, Isabel Pantoja, Ana Torroja and Rocío Dúrcal. Although not all of these singers are from Mexico. The most well-known Mexican singer of the 1970s and 1980s was José José. Known as “El Principe de La Cancion” (The Prince of the Song), he is recognizable for his romantic ballads and gifted vocals. José José has sold over 100 million albums in his career and became a huge influence to very popular singers like: Cristian Castro, Vicente Fernández, Alejandro Fernández, Pepe Aguilar, Manuel Mijares, Lupita D’Alessio, Reyli, and Nelson Ned. When Thalía became part of Timbiriche in the 1980s, tension with Paulina a group member became instantaneous and the rivalry to monopolize the lead role was warming the atmosphere and culminated at a point in which they ended up graving each other’s hairs on stage. Thalia and Paulina have frequently garnered comparisons ever since, even after the two directed their solo career. In which the media sets them up, competing for the title of Latin pop queen. Similar to the comparison between Christina Aguilera and Britney Spears in the American market who also both started as group membership at The Mickey Mouse Club. In the 1980s, the regional music scene in both Mexico and the Mexican American community in the United States was dominated by grupera. This style of Mexican music combines cumbia, norteño, and rock music. Norteño band Los Tigres del Norte continued their success from the 1970s with their corridos involving social commentary such as “Jaula de oro” (“The Golden Cage”) which tells of a Mexican man who crosses the Mexico-United States border illegally and raises a family in the United States who denies their Mexican heritage while the man longs to return to his country. Its parent album reached number one on the Regional Mexican charts in the United States. Similarly, Mexican singer-songwriter Joan Sebastian incorporated sounds of rancheras and ballads on his songs and was dubbed “El Rey del Jaripeo” (“The King of Mexican Rodeo”). Vicente Fernández and Ranchera music still remain relevant in the 1980s. His album, Por Tu Maldito Amor (1989), became the longest running number one Regional Mexican album of the decade in the United States with 21 weeks consecutive weeks at this position. American singer Linda Ronstadt, who is of Mexican descent, released Canciones de Mi Padre, a collection of songs that her father would sing. The album was certified double platinum by the RIAA for shipping over two million copies in the United States. In 1985 Sheena Easton and Luis Miguel wins the Grammy Award for Best Mexican/Mexican-American Performance for “Me Gustas Tal Como Eres”. Eugenia León, representing Mexico, wins the with her song “El Fandango Aquí” in 1986 Vikki Carr wins the Grammy Award for Best Mexican/Mexican-American Performance for Simplemente Mujer.

Moombahton

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Characteristics#

Identifying characteristics of moombahton include a thick and spread-out bass line, dramatic builds, and a two-step pulse with quick drum fills. Occasionally moombahton includes rave music synthesizers and a cappella rap samples. Musically, moombahton mixes the rhythmic origins of Dutch house or house music, the slow tempo of reggaeton, usually between 100-110bpm, accompanied by bouncy percussions from reggaeton.

History#

Moombahton was created by Dave Nada in late 2009 while DJing his cousin’s high school cut party in Washington, D.C. He blended the house and club music which he had planned to play with the reggaeton and bachata the guests were previously listening to by slowing down Afrojack’s remix of Silvio Ecomo and Chuckie’s song “Moombah!” from 128 bpm to 108 bpm, to create the basis of the genre. Between late 2009 and early 2010, Nada worked on a five track extended play of moombahton that was released in March 2010, with the support of the DJ Ayres and the DJ Tittsworth at T&A Records.

Mozambique (music)

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Cuban-style mozambique#

Mozambique (pron.: mo.sam.‘βi.ke) is a vigorous style of Cuban music and dance derived, like the conga, from music of Cuban street carnivals or comparsas. It was invented or developed by Pello el Afrokan (Pedro Izquierdo) in 1963.

Music#

Although the rhythm shares many characteristics with Sub-Saharan African music traditions, it does not have anything to do with music from the African nation of Mozambique. The Cuban mozambique features conga drums, bombos (bass drums), cowbells and trombones. See: “Mozambique Lesson in Cuba, 1985” (Pello el Afrokan), and “Mozambique Rhythm from Cuba” (Kim Atkinson). Izquierdo’s composition “María Caracoles” was later recorded by Santana on their 1977 album Festival. Izquierdo’s rhythm made its début in 1963 in Havana on the television programme Ritmos de Juventud, with the presenter surrounded by drummers so in tune with each other that they created a piano-like sound, while simultaneously performing the Mozambique dance.

Music of African heritage in Cuba

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Origins of Cuban African groups#

Clearly, the origin of African groups in Cuba is due to the island’s long history of slavery. Compared to the USA, slavery started in Cuba much earlier and continued for decades afterwards. Cuba was the last country in the Americas to abolish the importation of slaves, and the second last to free the slaves. In 1807 the British Parliament outlawed slavery, and from then on the British Navy acted to intercept Portuguese and Spanish slave ships. By 1860 the trade with Cuba was almost extinguished; the last slave ship to Cuba was in 1873. The abolition of slavery was announced by the Spanish Crown in 1880, and put into effect in 1886. Two years later, Brazil abolished slavery. Although the exact number of slaves from each African culture will never be known, most came from one of these groups, which are listed in rough order of their cultural impact in Cuba: # The Congolese from the Congo Basin and SW Africa. Many ethnic groups were involved, all called Congos in Cuba. Their religion is called Palo. Probably the most numerous group, with a huge influence on Cuban music. # The Oyó or Yoruba from modern Nigeria, known in Cuba as Lucumí. Their religion is known as Regla de Ocha (roughly, ’the way of the spirits’) and its syncretic version is known as Santería. Culturally of great significance. # The Kalabars from the Southeastern part of Nigeria and also in some part of Cameroon, whom were taken from the Bight of Biafra. These sub Igbo and Ijaw groups are known in Cuba as Carabali, p100 # Haiti immigrants to Cuba arrived at various times up to the present day. Leaving aside the French, who also came, the Africans from Haiti were a mixture of groups who usually spoke creolized French: and religion was known as vodú. # From part of modern Liberia and Côte d’Ivoire came the Gangá. # Senegambian people (Senegal, the Gambia), but including many brought from Sudan by the Arab slavers, were known by a catch-all word: Mandinga. The famous musical phrase Kikiribu Mandinga! refers to them.

Music of Haiti

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Karabiyen#

Karabiyen or Carabineer is a Haitian traditional dance style that is said to be created by Euphémie Daguilh, one of Dessalines’s friend. The dance is said to be created for the Haitian soldiers during the Haitian Revolution, and meant to be danced with their carabine strap to their back, hence the name. Dessalines himself was an excellent karabiyen dancer according to oral and written tradition. Karabiyen is named after carabine straps which Haitian soldiers used during the Haitian revolution.

Music of the Cayman Islands

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Música popular brasileira

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

MPB, loosely understood as a “style”, debuted in the mid-1960s, with the acronym being applied to types of non-electric music that emerged following the beginning, rise and evolution of bossa nova. MPB artists and audiences were largely connected to the intellectual and student population, causing later MPB to be known as “university music.” Over time, the definition of MPB expanded to include a wider variety of music that was popular in Brazil, including rock music, which was not initially under the umbrella due to its foreign origins.

Narcocorrido

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

This genre of music is the evolution of traditional corrido ballads of the Mexican-US border region, which stemmed from the 16th-century Spanish genre of romance. In the late 1980s and early 90s, Chalino Sánchez contributed to narcocorridos. Known throughout Mexico as “El Pelavacas” (Cow Skin Peeler) and “Mi Compa” (My Friend), Chalino was a Mexican immigrant living in Los Angeles. He began distributing his music for a sale price. His lyrics dealt with love, betrayal and the reality of life in Mexico. Soon he was selling mass copies. Chalino Sánchez was murdered in 1992 after a concert in Culiacán. In death, he became a legend and one of the most influential Mexican musicians to emerge from California, he is known throughout the United States and Mexico as El Rey del Corrido (The King of the Corrido). Various companies, governmental agencies, and individuals have sought to ban narcocorridos. These attempts include a voluntary radio station black-out in Baja California. Representative Casio Carlos Narváez explained that radio executives did not want to make “people who break the laws of our country into heroes and examples”. Former President of Mexico Vicente Fox also proposed banning narcocorridos. On the other hand, former Mexican foreign secretary Jorge Castaneda has argued that “corridos are attempts by Mexican society to come to terms with the world around them…You cannot blame narcocorridos for drug violence. Drug violence is to blame for narcocorridos”.

New Mexico music

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Origins#

The musical history of New Mexico goes back to pre-colonial times, but the sounds that define New Mexico music begin particularly with the ancestral Puebloans. Their music survived in the traditional songs of the Pueblo people with wind instruments such as the Anasazi flute, as well as the chants and drum beats of the Navajo and Apache. In Santa Fe de Nuevo México, the Hispanos of New Mexico brought Christian liturgical music, the violin, and the Spanish guitar, and Mexico brought with it the traditions of mariachi and ranchera. After New Mexico became a territory, the people of the American frontier brought the traditions of country and Cajun music. This was when the first forms of New Mexico music began to be played. Western was an adaption of country and Cajun, accompanied by traditionally Mexican and Native American instruments. New Mexico music is distinguished by its bouncy and steady rhythm, while accompanied by instruments common in Pueblo music, Western, Norteño, Apache music, country, mariachi, and Navajo music. Country and western music lend their drum and/or guitar style sections, while the steadiness of the rhythm owes its origins to the music of the Apache, Navajo, and Pueblo. And the differing rates of that tempo comes from the three common ranchera rhythm speeds, the polka at 2/4 (ranchera polkeada), the waltz at 3/4 (ranchera valseada), and/or the bolero at 4/4 (bolero ranchero). After statehood, the music was sung at parties and in homes as traditional folk music, and New Mexico music grew in popularity with native New Mexicans, mostly with the Pueblo, Navajo, Apache, Neomexicanos, and the descendants of the American frontier. Musicians in the genre received prominent airtime on KANW, and international recognition on the syndicated Val De La O Show.

Nortec

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

Nortec originated in 1999 when Pepe Mogt started by experimenting with samples of old banda sinaloense and norteño albums and altering them on his computer or filtering them with analog synthesizers. He had picked up on the idea by listening to the percussive and angular grooves of the tambora and norteña music played at a family social event. Through some contacts in recording studios located in Tijuana’s notorious Zona Norte red light district, Pepe compiled tracks of isolated instruments from multitrack recording of tambora and norteño demo recordings that had been abandoned at the studios by the bands that recorded them. He began to burn these tracks onto CD-Rs, which he would later distribute to friends under the condition that they make a new track using the material. Those first raw tracks were compiled onto the “Nor-tec Sampler”, the first release from Mil Records followed by the release “The Tijuana Sessions Vol. 1” and then “The Tijuana Sessions Vol. 3”.

Norteño (music)

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Repertoire#

The norteño repertoire covers canción ranchera, corrido, ballad, bolero, chotís, cumbia, huapango norteño, mazurka, polka, redowa and waltz. Image:Ramón Ayala.jpg Ramon Ayala, a norteño musician known as the “King of the Accordion” Image:Los Tigres Del Norte 1.jpg Los Tigres del Norte performing at a Californian casino in 2006

Origins#

Emperor Maximilian I brought Central European music to México during his reign (beginning 1863) in the Second Mexican Empire. By 1864, he had accumulated marching bands and musicians to entertain him. In 1867, the Mexican Republic executed Maximilian, thereby ending the Austrian empire in Mexico. Many of Maximilian’s former soldiers and fellow countrymen fled north and dispersed into what is now the southwestern United States. Norteño music developed from a blending of Mexican and Spanish oral and musical traditions, military brass band instrumentation, and European musical styles such as polka and waltz. European immigrants from Germany, Poland, and Czechia to northern Mexico and the southwestern United States also brought dance traditions such as the varsovienne. The focus on the accordion in the music of their home countries was integrated into Mexican music, and became an essential instrument. It was called norteño (“northern”) because it was most popular in the northern regions of Mexico. The late 1910s and 1920s were the golden age of the corrido, a form of ballad. Mexicans on both sides of the border came to San Antonio, Texas, to record in hotels. Their songs memorialize the Mexican political revolution of the time. Los Alegres de Terán and Los Donneños were among the first norteño bands. Later in the century, the genre became more commercial with the works of Los Relámpagos del Norte and other groups. More recent bands such as Intocable integrate elements of rock music and other popular styles.

Norteño-sax

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

Norteño with sax originated in Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico, in the 1940s. Over the years, its popularity had spread to several other regions of Mexico; mainly in the country’s landlocked states. It would also gain popularity among the Mexican community in the United States from said Mexican region. Even though norteño-sax had its origins in Nuevo León, as did traditional accordion-led norteño, the former eventually became more culturally associated with states such as Chihuahua, Coahuila, Durango, Zacatecas, and San Luis Potosí; in part due to it being more popular there than its native region. The term “norteño-sax” or “norteño with sax” did not become widely used until the 2010s. Prior to that, it was known simply as “norteño” music. The genre eventually received its own name in order for it to be distinguishable from other styles of norteño music. More recent norteño-sax artists have incorporated modern elements into their music in terms of instruments and lyrics without abandoning their traditional roots.

Nueva canción

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Characteristics#

"" is a type of music which is committed to social good. Its musical and lyrical vernacular is rooted in the popular classes and often uses a popularly understood style of satire to advocate for sociopolitical change. The movement reacted against the dominance of American and European music in Latin America at the time by assuming an anti-imperial stance that was markedly less focused on the visual spectacle of commercial music and more focused on social and political messages. It characteristically talks about poverty, empowerment, imperialism, democracy, human rights, religion, and the Latin American identity. draws heavily upon Andean music, música negra, Spanish music, Cuban music and other Latin American folklore. Most songs feature the guitar, and often the quena, zampoña, charango or cajón. The lyrics are typically in Spanish, with some indigenous or local words mixed in, and frequently utilize the poetic forms of copla and décima. was explicitly related to leftist politics, advancing leftist ideals and flourishing within the structure of the Communist Party in Latin America. Cuban cultural organization Casa de las Américas hosted many notable gatherings of musicians, including the 1967 Encuentro de la Canción Protesta. Songs of conflict in Spanish have a very long history, with elements to be found in the “fronterizos”, songs concerning the Reconquest of Spain from the Moors in the 15th century. More immediately, some of the roots of may be seen in the Mexican “corrido”, which took on a strongly political flavour during the War of Independence , and then the Revolution after 1910. The modern developed in the historical context of the “folklore boom” that occurred in Latin America in the 1950s. Chilean Violeta Parra and Argentine Atahualpa Yupanqui were two transitional figures as their mastery of folk music and personal involvement in leftist political organizations aided the eventual union of the two in . The movement was also aided by legislation like Juan Perón’s Decreto 3371/1949 de Protección de la Música Nacional and Law No. 14,226, which required that half of the music played on the radio or performed live be of national origin. The music quickly spread to Argentina and throughout Latin America during the 1960s and 1970s. Various national movements used their own terminology; however, the term "" was adopted at the 1967 Encuentro de la Canción Protesta and has thereafter been used as an all-encompassing term. Though is often considered a Pan-Latino phenomenon, national manifestations were varied and reacted to local political and cultural contexts.

Nueva canción chilena

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

The Chilean New Song movement was spurred by a renewed interest in Chilean traditional music and folklore in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Folk singers such as Violeta Parra and Víctor Jara traversed the regions of Chile both collecting traditional melodies and songs and seeking inspiration to create songs with social themes. These songs diverged from songs known in the cities at the time, which were often stylized interpretations of central Chilean folk music that emphasized patriotism and idyllic representations of country life; in contrast, the New Song sought to give a voice to Chile’s rural peoples, its working class, and their realities. Early musicians in the movement often used folk instruments such as the quena (Andean flute) or zampoñas (pan-pipes). This phase of the Chilean New Song has been referred to as the “discovery and protest” phase. Violeta Parra in particular played a key role in this phase of the New Song as she was committed to reviving Chilean traditional songs and bringing a voice to the Chilean poor. In the 1960s, Parra founded La Peña de Los Parra in Santiago alongside her son Ángel Parra, also a key figure in the movement, and this became a meeting place for musicians of the New Song. Parra’s impact on the movement is widely acknowledged. In 1981, Cuban singer Silvio Rodríguez remarked that her influence on the Latin American New Song movement cannot be understated: “Violeta is fundamental. Nothing would have been as it is had it not been for Violeta”. Rejection of foreign influence on Chilean culture, particularly US culture, further stimulated the movement as it sought to create a sense of Chilean national identity. At the inaugural Festival de la Nueva Canción Chilena (Festival of the Chilean New Song) in 1969 in Santiago - the first time the movement was so named - Universidad Catolica rector Fernando Castillo said: “Perhaps popular song is the art that best defines a community. But lately in our country we are experiencing a reality that is not ours… Our purpose here today is to search for an expression that describes our reality… How many foreign singers come here and get us all stirred up, only to leave us emptier than ever when they leave? And isn’t it true that our radio and television programs seldom encourage the creativity of our artists… ? Let our fundamental concern be that our own art be deeply rooted in the Chilean spirit so that when we sing - be it badly or well - we express genuine happiness and pain, happiness and pain that are our own.” The Chilean New Song also developed amidst a background of social upheaval taking place throughout Latin America. The Cuban Revolution and the Vietnam War provided inspiration for a growing number of musicians who aligned themselves politically with the socialist struggle. Examples of this include Víctor Jara’s Zamba del Che in homage to Che Guevara and Rolando Alarcón’s Por Cuba y Por Vietnam. Following Violeta Parra’s death in 1967, Víctor Jara became one of the leading figures of the movement. In Chile, the New Song came to actively support the presidential campaign of Salvador Allende. Folk singers of the movement wrote songs in support of Allende’s Popular Unity coalition, playing at political rallies and becoming cultural beacons of the left. The campaign hymn for Popular Unity, “Venceremos” (“we shall succeed”), written by Claudio Iturra and Sergio Ortega and performed by the band Inti-Illimani, contained lyrics urging the Chilean people to unite behind Allende’s. Another key song in the movement, El pueblo unido jamas sera vencido (“the people united will never be defeated”), written by Quilapayún and Sergio Ortega, was also originally composed in support of Allende’s electoral campaign and went on to become an internationally recognised song of protest. The election of Salvador Allende as Chilean president in 1970 heralded a new phase for the New Song movement and themes became less tied to a particular political cause., In one of his final songs, Manifesto, Víctor Jara sung of the essence of the New Song: My guitar is not for the rich no, nothing like that. My song is of the ladder we are building to reach the stars. For a song has meaning when it beats in the veins of a man who will die singing, truthfully singing his song. The 1973 military coup led by Augusto Pinochet marked the end of the Chilean New Song movement. Many of its proponents were captured and tortured and fled Chile in exile. In the days following the coup, Víctor Jara was taken to Chile Stadium (Estadio Chile now Estadio Víctor Jara), tortured and killed at the hands of the military regime. According to testimony, he was tortured by soldiers who broke his hands and taunted him saying “sing now, if you can, bastard”; Jara reportedly responded by singing a verse of Venceremos and was subsequently taken away and killed. Jara’s final work was a poem without a title, commonly named Estadio Chile, wherein he wrote of the conditions of those captured by the military junta: How hard it is to sing when I must sing of horror. Horror which I am living, horror which I am dying. To see myself among so much and so many moments of infinity in which silence and screams are the end of my song. From foreign shores, a number of New Song musicians including Angel Parra, Patricio Manns and bands Inti-Illimani and Quilapayun continued to perform in the New Song style.

Nueva trova

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Influences#

Nueva Trova was one aspect of the Pan-Latin American “new song movement” which tended to use lyrics that were self-consciously literary, formal and schooled. Another influence was that of filín (feeling), a romantic song movement of the late 1940s to the early 1960s. Pablo Milanés, for one, was a filín singer. At approximately the same time as the rise of Nueva Trova, similar musical genres across the world were increasing in popularity as part of a roots revival; these involved the popularization of traditional music welded with socio-political lyrics. Nueva Trova was most closely influenced by South American (especially Chilean) nueva canción, Spanish Nova Cançó, Bolivian canto nuevo, Portuguese canto livre and nova canção, and Brazilian Tropicalismo. At about the same time, Puerto Ricans like Roy Brown, Andrés Jiménez, Antonio Cabán Vale and the group Haciendo Punto en Otro Son also became popular. Though inspired by American protest artists like Bob Dylan and Joan Baez, Nueva Trova criticized the abuses of the United States government and its allies. Other major influences include The Beatles, Chilean revivalist Violeta Parra, Uruguayan singer-songwriter Daniel Viglietti and the Catalan protest singer Joan Manuel Serrat. In both Cuba and Puerto Rico, the politicized lyrics of Nueva Trova were very often critical of the United States; Puerto Rican singers were especially critical of Vieques’ continued use as a United States Navy training ground. Nueva Trova is defined, not only by its connection with Castro’s revolution, but also by its lyrics. The lyrics try to escape the banalities of life (e.g. love) by concentrating on socialism, injustice, sexism, colonialism, racism and similar ‘serious’ issues. Silvio Rodríguez, Noel Nicola, and Pablo Milanés became the most important exponents of this style. Carlos Puebla and Joseíto Fernández were long-time trova singers who added their weight to the new regime, but of the two only Puebla wrote special pro-revolution songs. The government gave support to musicians willing to write and sing anti-U.S. and pro-revolution songs. This was an additional incentive in a period when many of the traditional musicians found it difficult or impossible to earn a living. In 1967, the Casa de las Américas in Havana held a Festival de la canción de protesta (protest songs). Tania Castellanos, a filín singer and author, wrote ¡Por Ángela! in support of Angela Davis. César Portillo de la Luz wrote Oh, valeroso Viet Nam. Although Nueva Trova expressed the socio-economic issues of Cuba, later on some musicians chose to express these issues through Rap Cubano which they viewed as more pure and more to the street.

Pachanga

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Music#

Charanga is a type of traditional ensemble that plays Cuban dance music (mostly Danzón, Danzonete, and Cha cha chá) using violin, flute, horns, drums. José Fajardo brought the song “La Pachanga” to New York in the Cuban charanga style. The orquesta, or band, was referred to as charanga, while the accompanying dance was named the pachanga. The similar sound of the words charanga and pachanga has led to the fact that these two notions are often confused. In fact, Charanga has a lot of different meanings; it can refer to having a party, a musical ensemble, or the rhythm itself. Eduardo Davidson’s tune, “La Pachanga”, with rights managed by Peer International (BMI), achieved international recognition in 1961 when it was licensed in three versions sung by Genie Pace on Capitol, by Audrey Arno in a German version on European Decca, and by Hugo and Luigi and their children’s chorus. Billboard commented “A bright new dance craze from the Latins has resulted in these three good recordings, all with interesting and varying treatments.”

Pagode

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

External links#

Samba Pagode history
Samba & Pagode band/history
Samba & Pagode Semba/history

Pagode baiano

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

The genre gained momentum around 1994, influenced by Bahia and Rio de Janeiro pagode. The genre’s first success was Dança do Tchaco, by . At that time, the group was also emerging, releasing an independently recorded CD that sold well. From 1995 onwards, with the phenomenon of É o Tchan!, the genre gained national prominence. Other groups emerged, such as , , , , and Gang do Samba. In the late 1990s, despite the name pagode “baiano” (from Bahia), groups focused on the style emerged in other parts of the country, such as from Rio de Janeiro and from São Paulo, which were also very successful. In the 2000s, other notable groups emerged, such as , Parangolé, Pagod’art, , Guig Guetho, Oz Bambaz, Saiddy Bamba, Fantasmão, Swing do P, Black Style and A Bronkka, Leo Santana.

Pambiche

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Recordings#

Dominican accordionist El Prodigio released an album entitled Pambiche Meets Jazz in which he combined traditional merengue rhythms (most of the songs featuring pambiche) with American music styles such as jazz, rock and blues. Both pambiche and merengue are included in Jean Françaix’s suite “Cinq Danses Exotiques”. The Dominican songwriter Juan Luis Guerra has recorded several Pambiches, including the traditional merengue Juana Mecho (Soplando, 1984) and his recent releases Pambiche de novia (Privé, 2020). Other pambiches are the traditional Juan Gomero, Rafael Solano’s Dominicanita, Vicente Garcia’s Palm Beach, and Luys Bien’s Déjame Nacer.

Partido alto

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Characteristics#

Regarding structure, Partido Alto differentiates itself from common samba in that it is usually divided in two main parts. One is the usually static refrain (refrão), which is sung by a choral, which often means everyone present in a samba performance. The other part is called the verses and is often soloed by one or more participants. There can frequently be two or more versers (versadores), and that usually means that they will be competing in some way, be it humorous or not. Partido Alto’s harmony is traditionally in a major key, which is often understood as a more joyous type of harmony, matching the genre’s somewhat euphoric nature. Percussivelly, it presents a peculiar pandeiro beat, with strong use of a violent, dry snap created by hitting the center of the head with the palm of the hand; thus nylon-skinned pandeiros are more common here than in others genres, although Partido Alto uses organic-skins just as much. The name of the genre can, among other meanings, be understood as a reference to this percussive property; one of the possible literal translations would be “broken high”, which could be thought of as “highly broken”.

Peruvian cumbia

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Origins and development#

Chicha started out in the 1960s in the oil-boom cities of the Peruvian Amazon. Loosely inspired by Colombian cumbia, it incorporated the distinctive pentatonic scales of Andean melodies, Cuban percussion, and the psychedelic sounds of surf guitars, wah-wah pedals and combo organs or Moog synthesizers. Chicha absorbed elements of the music of the Amazonian regions of Peru and the use of the Farfisa electronic organ through Amazonian bands like Juaneco y Su Combo. Chicha, which is named after a corn-based liquor favored by the Incas, quickly spread to Lima. It became the music of choice of the mostly indigenous new migrant population. By the mid-1980s it had become the most widespread urban music in Peru. The first chicha hit, and the song from which the movement has taken its name, was “La Chichera” (The Chicha Seller) by Los Demonios del Mantaro (The Devils of Mantaro), who hailed from the central highlands of Junin. The band Los Destellos, formed in Lima in 1966, brought electric guitars to chicha and consolidated its characteristic features by integrating in it elements of Peruvian Andean folklore, Peruvian creole waltz, Cuban music and rock music. Other bands, such as Los Mirlos, Los Ecos, and Los Diablos Rojos were highly influenced by this style. During the 1980s the Amerindian immigrants to coastal cities that nurtured the subgenre became working and middle class individuals and a market for chicha commercial radio. The Pharaoh of Cumbia, Chacalon, became one of the most popular chicha artists through his hit “Soy provinciano” (I am from the province) and vibrant concerts. Another famous band in the 1980s were Los Shapis, a provincial group established by their 1981 hit “El Aguajal” (The Swamp), a version of a traditional huayno. The strong influence of Mexican tecnocumbia became evident on the evolution of Peruvian cumbia in the 1990s. Efforts by Argentina-based Grupo Néctar and others gave it regional recognition. Its decline during the late 1990s was followed by a revival that began in 2007, mainly thanks to the rising popularity of Tongo.

Pinoy reggae

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

Jamaican reggae was introduced to the Philippines in the late 1960s; however the first recognized Filipino reggae bands didn’t appear until the late 1970s. Cocojam is known as one of the first Filipino reggae bands. Ska also found its place in the Philippines, with many bands forming, especially in the Visayas region. Cities like Dumaguete and Cebu became the hub of Filipino ska. Dub music also found its place within the islands, with bands like Junior Kilat popularizing the genre with songs like “Sigbin”. Local folklore, tales and traditions were a noticeable influence on songs. The subgenre dancehall was popularized in Cebu by Coolie Dread and the Microphone Commanders. Bands like Badjao Roots and Tropical Depression displayed cultural awareness by using traditional instruments in their songs. With the commercial success of groups like Brownman Revival and Tropical Depression, the Filipino reggae scene has seen more popularity, to the point that more reggae festivals are being introduced and expanded around the country.

Pirekua

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

External links#

*Media services: “Pirekua, traditional song of the P’urhépecha”, UNESCO.org.

Pisadinha

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Piseiro#

Piseiro is a variation of pisadinha that emerged in the state of Bahia, derived from forró. According to Folha de S.Paulo, piseiro can be described as “a descendant of forró with aesthetic objectives aligned with current funk”. The piseiro has traces of the pisodinha, presenting a choreography marked by shuffling steps and hands positioned close to the body. This derivation of traditional forró has faster beats, offering a solo dance. The name “piseiro” derives from the name of the place where the pisodinha is danced. Some of the names considered responsible for the piseiro’s success are Os Barões da Pisadinha and Vitor Fernandes.

Porro

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Types#

The two types of folkloric porro are porro palitiao and porro tapao.

Porro palitiao#

The term “palitiao” is derived from the way the bombo drum is struck along its rim to produce the sound of a cowbell. This type of porro is associated with the Sinú River, and its surrounding cities and towns. Some would agree on San Pelayo, Colombia, Córdoba as its place of birth. This is the reason why it can also take the name of porro pelayero. In orchestrated variants, porro palitiao or pelayero is known as gaita. See La Sonora Cordobesa and Pacho Galán for exemplary orro palitiao and gaita music.

Pregón

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Background#

Oral proclamations made in the street were an important form of mass communication throughout Europe and the Americas until the late 19th century, when other forms of communication emerged to replace the town criers. In Spain and Latin-America, those who read these proclamations were known as pregoneros and their speech as a pregón. Over time, the official town crier, who read public announcements sanctioned by governments, disappeared, but the street cries associated with itinerant vendors continued into the 20th century, and can still be heard in commercial marketplaces and fairs. Street vendors and their cries were known in medieval Europe. The numbers of street vendors working in urban areas increased markedly from the 17th century. These criers or street vendors filled the streets of many European cities including Paris, Bologna, Naples and Cologne. As the streets filled with hawkers, costermongers and other types of the itinerant vendor, competition between them intensified. In an effort to stand out, street vendors began to develop distinctive, melodic cries, which became a standard feature of street life. Each trade developed its own unique type of street cry; a distinctive set of words or a unique tune.

Proibidão

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Punk in Brazil

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Late 1970s#

The origins of punk rock in Brazil date back to the late 1970s. As in most other countries, the influence of the Sex Pistols, The Clash and The Ramones sparked the movement. Nonetheless, São Paulo was heavily influenced by lesser-known bands such as Speedtwins from the Netherlands, as well as by earlier protopunk artists such as The MC5, Iggy & The Stooges and The New York Dolls. Punk was initially adopted and fostered by musician Douglas Viscaino. With his band Restos de Nada which began playing in 1978, Viscaino promoted revolutionary ideas and brought young people together against the Brazilian military regime. The late 70s witnessed the fast-growing interest of punk nationwide: pioneer bands AI-5 and N.A.I. (later known as Condutores de Cadáver) sprouted in São Paulo, Carne Podre in Curitiba and Aborto Elétrico in Brasília. Before Brazil’s contemporary punk groups came along, two relatively famous glam/hard rock bands, Joelho de Porco and Made in Brazil, helped promote elements of the punk aesthetic around 1977. Both bands were important to the early days of Brazilian punk, offering a new alternative to the MPB and progressive rock artists that dominated the country’s music scene at the time. Joelho de Porco, whose lyrics bore a strong influence from São Paulo’s urban environment, became highly influential.

Punto guajiro

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Description#

Punto is played by a group with various types of guitar: the Spanish guitar, the Cuban tres, the laúd and the tiple. The punto refers to the use of a pick (punteando), rather than strumming (rasgueado). There are three percussion instruments: the clave, the güiro and the guayo (also a scraper, but of metal). Singers form themselves into teams, and improvise their lines. They sing, or chant, an unvarying melody, with intervals between stanzas to give the singers time to prepare the next verse. Early compositions were sometimes recorded in print, as were the names of some of the singer/composers. Beginning around 1935, punto reached a peak of popularity on Cuban radio. Nothing was done to record their work, but as it happens, a stenographer, Aida Bode, was a fan of this genre, and she wrote down the verses as they were broadcast. Finally, in 1997, her transcriptions were published in book form. Celina González and Albita both sang punto in the first part of their careers, proving that the genre is still alive, though perhaps moribund in its original form. Celina has one of the great voices in popular music, and her supporting group Campo Alegre is outstanding. For aficionados, however, Indio Naborí (Sabio Jesús Orta Ruiz, b. 30 September 1922) is the greatest name in punto, for his decima poetry, which he wrote daily for the radio and newspapers. He is also a published author, with several collections of his poetry, much of which has a political nueva trova edge.

Ragga

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Origins#

Ragga originated in Jamaica during the 1980s, at the same time that electronic dance music’s popularity was increasing globally. It differs marginally from its dancehall predecessor “other than a slightly more aggressive attitude, and an alignment with the kind of concerns of its youthful audience”. Ragga spread to Europe, North America, and Africa, eventually spreading to Japan, India, and the rest of the world. Ragga heavily influenced early jungle music, and also spawned the syncretistic bhangragga style when fused with bhangra. In the 1990s, ragga and breakcore music fused, creating a style known as raggacore. Ragga also brought with its own fashion designers. Andrew Dunbar working in London produced designs, one of which showed at the Victoria & Albert Museum’s 1994 ‘Street Style’ Street Style exhibition. The term “raggamuffin” is an intentional misspelling of “ragamuffin”, a word that entered the Jamaican Patois lexicon after the British Empire colonized Jamaica in the 17th century. Despite the British colonialists’ pejorative application of the term, Jamaican youth appropriated it as an ingroup designation. The term “raggamuffin music” describes the music of Jamaica’s “ghetto dwellers”.

Ranchera

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Definitions#

The word ranchera was derived from the word rancho because the songs originated on the ranches and in the countryside of rural Mexico. Traditional themes in rancheras are about love, heartbreak, patriotism or nature. Rhythms can have a meter in (in slow tempo: ranchera lenta and faster tempo: ranchera marcha), (ranchera vals), or (bolero ranchero). Songs are usually in a major key, and consist of an instrumental introduction, verse and refrain, instrumental section repeating the verse, and another verse and refrain, with a tag ending. Rancheras are also noted for the grito mexicano, a yell that is done at musical interludes within a song, either by the musicians and/or the listening audience. The normal musical pattern of rancheras is a–b–a–b. Rancheras usually begin with an instrumental introduction (a). The first lyrical portion then begins (b), with instrumental adornments interrupting the lines in between. The instruments then repeat the theme again, and then the lyrics may either be repeated or begin a new set of words. One also finds the form a–b–a–b–c–b used, in which the intro (a) is played, followed by the verse (b). This form is repeated, and then a refrain (c) is added, ending with the verse. The most popular ranchera composers include Lucha Reyes, Cuco Sánchez, Antonio Aguilar, Juan Gabriel and José Alfredo Jiménez, who composed many of the best-known rancheras, with compositions totaling more than 1,000 songs, making him one of the most prolific songwriters in the history of western music. Another closely related style of music is the corrido, which is often played by the same ensembles that regularly play rancheras. The corrido, however, is apt to be an epic story about heroes and villains, or the narrator’s lifestyle.

Rasin

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Characteristics#

Rasin bands combine the Vodou ceremonial and folk music traditions with various musical styles. The Haitian Vodou musical tradition includes “cool” rada rhythms often associated with Africa and the “hot” petro rhythms that speak of a New World, and bands incorporate both styles in their music, although rarely in the same song. On top of the basic horn and drum rhythms, melodies are layered that include structure from rock and roll and jazz. instrumentation can include a variety of drums (including distinct rada and petro styles), rara horns, electronic keyboards, electronic drums, electric guitars, an electric bass, one or more vocalists, and other percussionists. Most song lyrics are written in Creole and often incorporate traditional Vodou ceremonial lyrics or poetry. Songs can speak to traditional Vodou themes such as spying and betraying, feeling lost or estranged, the need for judgement and justice, or the urge to reconnect with an ancestral homeland. Some songs are based on prayers directed to particular loa, or gods, while others may be ballads relating to Haitian mythology. Many songs contain multiple layers of meaning, and can be interpreted as social or political commentary. Songs often emphasize spiritual messages of tolerance, faith, justice, and universal love. The music is upbeat and rhythmic and, like Vodou ceremonial music, intended for dancing.

Reggae en Español

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Early developments#

Reggae as a musical genre has its origins in Jamaica, and it became popular throughout the 1970s in the black-immigrant communities of the other British West Indies, North America, and Great Britain. Jamaican reggae was embraced in Panama by the descendants of black workers that immigrated to the Isthmus during the construction of the Panama Railroad (mid-19th century), the railways for the banana companies (late 19th century), and the Panama Canal (early 20th century). Prior to the period of construction of the Panama Canal (1904–1915), most of the Afro-Caribbean communities in Panama were of Haiti descent, but with the construction of the canal these communities grew in diversity with immigrants from other parts of the Caribbean such as Jamaica, Barbados, Martinique, Guadeloupe, Haiti, Trinidad, Dominica, Puerto Rico, French and British Guyana and other Caribbean Islands. In 1977, a Guyanese immigrant who went by the nickname “Guyana”, along with a local DJ known as “Wassabanga” introduced for first time the reggae rhythms in Panama with lyrics in Spanish. Wassabanga’s music along with later interpreters such as Rastanini and Calito Soul, were perhaps the first remarkable cases of reggae en Español, at a time when many Panamanians were already developing a musical and spiritual bond with the Mecca of reggae music (Kingston, Jamaica), a bond catalyzed mainly by the call to arms issued by the music of Bob Marley. In 1984, Hernando Brin produced the first record in Panamá of reggae in Spanish on vinyl, called “Treatment”, In the early to mid-1980s, Panamanians like Renato, El General, Nando Boom, El Maleante and Chicho Man started to take Jamaican dancehall songs and beats, singing over them with Spanish lyrics, most of the time preserving the melodies and the rhythms. They also sped up riddims. This style was called reggae en Español or “Spanish reggae”. The music continued to grow throughout the 1980s, with many stars developing in Panama. Between the 1980s and 1990s, the Panamanian artist Chicho Man emerged as one of the greater exponents of Panamanian reggae. In the 1990s, the genre had grown in Panama. In 1991, singer Apache Ness with Papa Chan, Kafu Banton, Calito Soul, Wassa Banga, and Original Dan decided to join forces and create the foundation “One Love One Blood” singing about urban street experiences under the rhythm called reggae bultrón. In 1996 came artists such as Aldo Ranks, El Renegado, and Jam & Suppose who sang the hit “Camión Lleno de Gun”. Jr. Ranks and Tony Bull already had good records with late singer Danger Man and they formed the musical group called The Killamanjaros. Later in Panama, the romanticism had been mixed with reggae and reggae romántico (“romantic reggae”), now better known as “romantic flow”. Those who keep alive the reggae with romantic lyrics are the following: Flex (aka Nigga), El Roockie, El Aspirante, Kathy Phillips, Eddy Lover, Tommy Real, Makano, Catherine, as well as groups like Raíces y Cultura and La Factoría who became famous by the Panamanian producer Irving DiBlasio. In the year 1996, considered the golden age of Panamanian reggae, appeared the productions Los Cuentos de la Cripta and La Mafia by producer El Chombo, with songs like “Las Chicas Quieren Chorizo” (“The Girls Want Chorizo”) by Wassabanga, “El Cubo de Leche” by Jam & Suppose and “Estaban Celebrando” by Aldo Ranks. The Museum of Reggae in Spanish was inaugurated on April 19, 2023. It is located on Calle 13 in the Santa Ana neighborhood of Panama City. This museum was created by Raul Isaac Alvarez who is a fan of the reggae music. The idea behind the museum was to show Panama’s contribution as the pioneers of reggae in Spanish and how this country influenced others such as Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico and Central America. The Museum of Reggae in Spanish has recognized the 10 pioneers of the genre including El General, Rude Girl, Renato, Nando Boom, Chicho Man, Carmensita Anderson, Gringo Man, Apache Ness, Super Nandi and Principal.

Reggae fusion

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Origin#

Artists have been mixing reggae with other genres from as early as the early 1970s, but initially they were described using terms that joined the various genres they performed (e.g. “reggae funk”, “reggae pop”, “reggae-disco”). It was not until the late 1990s that the term “reggae fusion” was coined. The subgenre predominantly evolved from late 1980s and early 1990s dancehall music which instrumentals or “riddims” contained elements from the R&B and hip hop genres. Due to this, some consider dancehall artists such as Mad Cobra, Shabba Ranks, Super Cat, Buju Banton and Tony Rebel as pioneers of reggae fusion. For some of these artists, among them Buju Banton, reggae fusion became a staple throughout their careers. However, reggae fusion can be traced back to before the success of these artists, as far back as the late 1970s and early 1980s, with such songs as “Pass the Dutchie”, and the band Third World blazed the trail, finding international success with songs such as “Now That We Found Love” and “Try Jah Love”. Therefore, Third World can be seen as arguably the original pioneers of reggae fusion leading the way for groups such as UB40 and Steel Pulse. Although there were a few recognized reggae fusion artists in the late 1980s to mid-1990s, including the aforementioned acts in addition to others such as Sublime, Maxi Priest, Shinehead, 311, First Light, the Police and Inner Circle, their style of fusing genres was subtly done. Artists such as Diana King, Patra, Buju Banton, Ini Kamoze, Snow and Shabba Ranks followed in their footsteps, however, creating a less subtle fusion by further blending heavier Jamaican dialect as well as more hardcore and sexual lyrics in their songs. This led to a lot of crossover success for these artists with songs such as “Informer” and “Here Comes the Hotstepper” reaching number one on the Billboard Hot 100, as well as topping charts all around the world. As the subgenre began to take shape, the mid- to late 1990s saw artists becoming more innovative as many began to mix genres that were not similar nor typically associated with reggae, such as techno and house, leading to the subgenre gaining a more distinctive following and really beginning to grow. This led dancehall artists who were trying to break into the U.S. market, to fuse the dancehall style of toasting or deejaying over softer and predominantly pop and hip hop instrumentals as well as to diversify the content of their songs while moving away from homophobic lyrics. Traditional dancehall acts, such as Shaggy and Beenie Man experienced commercial success in the American markets with the release of their albums in 2000. Shaggy had previously experienced multiple chart successes in the ’90s but it was his album, Hot Shot, that especially helped further propel the subgenre internationally, as his album spawned two number-one singles on the Billboard Hot 100, “It Wasn’t Me” and “Angel”. The early 2000s also saw Sean Paul achieve tremendous success internationally with singles such as “Baby Boy”, “Breathe”, “Like Glue” and “Make It Clap”, among many others. His albums Dutty Rock and The Trinity altogether spawned five top 10 Billboard Hot 100 hits between 2002 and 2006, including the number-one hits “Get Busy” and “Temperature”.

Reggae punk

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1970s#

Reggae punk first appeared in the late-1970s in England by punk rock bands incorporating reggae (and even lovers rock) elements into their music. The most notable band to have done this was the Clash. When Clash bassist Paul Simonon was getting his start in the music business and learning to play the bass, he found it easier to play along to reggae songs rather than traditional rock songs. In 1977, the Police would form. Initially considered a punk rock band, they soon expanded their sound to incorporate pop, new wave and reggae. In a retrospective assessment, AllMusic’s Stephen Thomas Erlewine argued that the notion of the Police as a punk band was only true “in the loosest sense of the term”, and stated that the band’s “nervous, reggae-injected pop/rock was punky” and had a “punk spirit” but it “wasn’t necessarily punk”. The Slits have also been described as punk-reggae by The Independent.

Reggae rock

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Reggaeton

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Etymology#

There are several versions about the origin of the word reggaeton. The word reggaeton was officially invented and coined in Puerto Rico adding the Spanish suffix ton to the word reggae. One of them states that the word reggaeton emerged in 1994 when Daddy Yankee mentioned it for the first time while “freestyling” on the mixtape Playero 34. Another version suggests that it appeared the following year when DJ Erick released the album titled Reggaetón Live Vol.1, abbreviating the words reggae and maratón (marathon). The spellings reggaeton and reggaetón are common, although prescriptivist sources such as the Fundéu BBVA and the Academia Puertorriqueña de la Lengua Española recommend the spelling reguetón, as it conforms more closely with traditional Spanish spelling rules.

Regional styles of Mexican music

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Baja California#

: Baja California has a characteristic style derived from the huapango norteño, known as calabaceado. Calabaceado is a type of dance that was created in the 1940s, based in the fact that “norteño music” and typical cowboy cultures were being mixed, which is reflected in the dance. Other norteño forms are also popular, such as Vals Norteño, Chotis, Mazurka and mariachi.

Chiapas#

: Chiapas has produced many marimba bands and artists, such as Marimbas de Chiapas. Chiapas has its own “son” tradition (son chiapaneco), often played on the marimba. Mexican waltzes are also particularly popular here.

Ringbang

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Ringbang music#

In an attempt to popularise ringbang music and its underlying philosophy, Grant asked various recording artists to apply the word (which he trademarked) to some of their songs. Barbadian recording artists Grynner, Square One, Viking Tundah, and others recorded ringbang tracks for Grant’s record labels, Ice Records and Blue Wave Records. Among the ringbang albums on these labels were Fire in de Wave (1994), Ringbang Rebel Dance (1995), Ringbang Souljah (1996), and Ringbang Revolution (1997). On New Year’s Eve 1999, Grant hosted a concert in Tobago called Ringbang Celebration 2000, at which he performed with the Frontline Orchestra. The event drew approximately 11,000 people, and featured performances by artists from Antigua, Barbados, and Trinidad and Tobago. Calypso musician Lord Kitchener’s brief appearance at the event was his final time onstage, as he died the following February. In March 2003, Ice Records published Ringbang 4 Kids, a selection of songs intended for children of primary school age. The songs were performed by Barbadian singer Indra Rudder, who had previously sung backing vocals for several Ice Records tracks.

Ripsaw music

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External links#

Music in the Turks and Caicos Islands at Turks and Caicos Tourist Board
Ripsaw Music & Our Musical Heritage, by David Bowen, Cultural Officer, Turks & Caicos Tourist Board.

Rock music in Mexico

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Origins: Orchestra and Jazz#

Rock activity in Mexico in the 1950s took place either in Mexico City and the surrounding area or in northern cities such as Mexicali, Monterrey, Nuevo Laredo, Ciudad Juárez and Tijuana, whose proximity to the United States gave them more exposure to American sounds. Rock & roll music was introduced to Mexico in the mid 1950s, as musicians like Elvis Presley and Bill Haley were at the peak of their popularity in the US, and their music began to be broadcast in Mexico and covered by Mexican bands. Except for Tijuana and Los Tj’s. In those early years, the first acts that performed and recorded rock & roll in the country were not rock “bands”, but rather orchestras that combined jazz sounds with the new genre. Gloria Ríos, an American-born actress and lounge singer, is often credited with introducing rock & roll music in Mexico. Born in Texas in 1928, Ríos arrived in Mexico in 1944 and began recording in 1955 with many musicians (and their orchestras), such as Héctor Hallal, Jorge Ortega, Pablo Beltrán Ruiz, and most importantly, with Mario Patrón and his Estrellas del Ritmo. Many of her recordings were covers of songs by Bill Haley and Elvis Presley, but with Las Estrellas del Ritmo she also recorded “La mecedora” in 1956, a song composed by Mario Patrón, which was said to be the first original song of Mexican rock & roll. Ríos became very popular at the time due to her starring roles in films like “Las locuras del rock and roll” (1956) and “La rebelión de los adolescentes” (1957), but she later married Mario Patrón and in 1960 she went with him to Europe, where they stayed for many years. This caused Ríos to be quickly forgotten in Mexico, as the new golden age of rock & roll was starting there and new bands claimed to be the ones who had introduced the genre in Mexico. Ríos died in 2002 at the age of 74 years old. These orchestras soon started to lose popularity as new rock bands appeared, formed by young musicians who mostly covered American and British songs. Los Lunáticos, founded in 1956, are considered by many to be the first Mexican rock and roll band, and later other bands like Los Locos del Ritmo, Los Rebeldes del Rock, Los Teen Tops, etc. became popular. Las Mary Jets, formed in 1959, were the first all-female rock band in Mexico. Rock, as elsewhere, became tied with the youth revolt of the 1960s. Many songs are credited as being the first original Mexican rock & roll songs, amongst them: *“La mecedora” (1956), written by Mario Patrón and recorded by his orchestra and Gloria Ríos. This is considered to be the first original Mexican rock song in Spanish. *“Mexican rock and roll” (1956), written by Pablo Beltrán Ruiz and recorded by his orchestra, it’s an instrumental piece. *“Where Did You Get It?” (1957), written by José Luis Arcaráz and recorded in English by Los Lunáticos. Bands of the 1950s and, to a lesser degree, were often associated with the middle-class youth of Mexico. Fearing a “Moral Crisis,” the PRI-controlled government imposed restrictions on rock music and films, in an effort to protect the “Buenas Costumbres,” or proper family values, by “avoid ing noxious or disturbing influences on the harmonious development of children and youth.” These guides caused any particularly “rebellious” media, including movies and rock, to conform to the PRI’s Buenas Costumbres to get their work officially published. In addition, both to protect Mexico’s record industry, and simultaneously discourage foreign-inspired challenges to the status quo, heavy tariffs were placed upon imported records. This combination of factors created the “Refrito” movement of the 1950s and early 1960s, where Mexican rock musicians reworked foreign songs to fit in with into the restrictions on music. One of the most popular examples is the song “La Plaga” by Los Teen Tops, a refrito cover of the Little Richard song “Good Golly Miss Molly,” where lyrics featuring elements of scandal and rebellion were toned down or altered by Los Teen Tops for the Mexican market. While many musicians of the refrito era saw success, both domestically and internationally, their music was often criticized by those on the left as “imperialist in nature,” and by those on the right for still being too “rebellious,” both of which would carry on into the La Onda era of the late 1960s,

Roots reggae

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History#

The increasing influence of the Rastafari movement after the visit of Haile Selassie to Jamaica in 1966 played a major part in the development of roots reggae, with spiritual themes becoming more common in reggae lyrics in the late 1960s. The Wailers’ popularity in Europe opened the door for other artists, and roots reggae artists became popular with punk rock fans. While roots reggae was largely overtaken in popularity in Jamaica by dancehall, several artists from the original era, such as Culture, Burning Spear, and Israel Vibration continued to produce roots reggae, and artists like Beres Hammond and Freddie McGregor continued the use of roots reggae, as a musical style and thematically, through the 1980s. In the 1990s younger Jamaican artists became interested in the Rastafari movement and began incorporating roots themes into their music. Most notable among the new generation of “conscious” artists was Garnett Silk, whose positive spiritual message and consistent use of roots and rocksteady riddims gave him cross generational appeal with Caribbean audiences. While other notable dancehall stars like Capleton and Buju Banton became devout Rastas and changed their musical direction as a result. Other modern roots artists and bands also emerged at this time, including Luciano, Junior Kelly, Morgan Heritage, Anthony B, and Sizzla.

Rumba

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In Cuba#

During the second half of the 19th century, several secular dance-oriented music styles were developed by Afro-Cuban workers in the poor neighbourhoods of Havana and Matanzas. These syncretic styles would later be referred to as “rumba”, a word that also meant “party”. Traditionally, the three main styles of rumba are yambú, columbia and guaguancó, each of which has a characteristic dance, rhythm and singing. Although still a purely folkloric genre, numerous innovations have been introduced in rumba since the mid 20th century, including new styles such as batá-rumba and guarapachangueo.

Salsa music

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Origins of the term Salsa#

The word Salsa means sauce in the Spanish language. The origin of the connection of this word to a style of music is disputed by various music writers and historians. The musicologist Max Salazar traced the origin of the connection to 1930 when Ignacio Piñeiro composed the song Échale salsita (Put some sauce in it). The phrase is seen as a cry from Piñeiro to his band, telling them to increase the tempo to “put the dancers into high gear”. In the mid-1940s, Cuban Cheo Marquetti emigrated to Mexico. He named his group Conjunto Los Salseros, with whom he recorded a couple of albums for the Panart and Egrem labels. Later on, while based in Mexico City, the musician Beny Moré would shout salsa during a performance to acknowledge a musical moment’s heat, making a connection with the hot salsa (sauce) made in the country. Puerto Rican music promoter Izzy Sanabria claims he was the first to use the word salsa to denote a music genre: In 1973, I hosted the television show Salsa which was the first reference to this particular music as salsa. I was using the term salsa, but the music wasn’t defined by that. The music was still defined as Latin music. And that was a very, very broad category, because it even includes mariachi music. It includes everything. So salsa defined this particular type of music … It’s a name that everyone could pronounce. Sanabria’s Latin New York magazine was an English language publication. Consequently, his promoted events were covered in The New York Times, as well as Time and Newsweek magazines. Sanabria confessed the term salsa was not developed by musicians: “Musicians were busy creating the music but played no role in promoting the name salsa.” For this reason the use of the term salsa has been controversial among musicians. Some have praised its unification element. Celia Cruz said, “Salsa is Cuban music with another name. It’s mambo, chachachá, rumba, son … all the Cuban rhythms under one name.” Willie Colón described salsa not as a precise musical style but a power to unite in the broadest terms: “Salsa was the force that united diverse Latino and other non-Latino racial and ethnic groups …Salsa is the harmonic sum of all Latin culture “. On the other hand, even some New York based artists were originally against the commercialization of music under that name. Machito said: “There’s nothing new about salsa, it is just the same old music that was played in Cuba for over fifty years.” Cuban musicologist Mayra Martínez wrote that “the term salsa obscured the Cuban base, the music’s history or part of its history in Cuba. And salsa was a way to do this so that Jerry Masucci, Fania and other record companies, like CBS, could have a hegemony on the music and keep the Cuban musicians from spreading their music abroad.” Johnny Pacheco, co-founder of Fania Records, gave his definition of the term “Salsa” during various interviews: “La salsa es, y siempre ha sido, la musica cubana” (“Salsa is, and always has been, Cuban music”). The marketing potential from the name was so big, that eventually both Machito, Puente, and even musicians in Cuba embraced the term as a financial necessity.

Salsa romántica

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Description and origins#

The genre was introduced by La Palabra, a Cuban musician, in the mid-1980s. It arose at a time when classic salsa, popularized by Fania Records, was growing on the Latin record charts, including the rise of Latin pop. Salsa romántica was an adaptation of melodic love songs to a smooth, light salsa backing. The style sprang from a single album, Noches Calientes, created in 1984 by Fania producer Luis Ramirez. Salsa romántica uses softer, quieter orchestral sounds, ballads set to a slowed-down salsa rhythm and romantic lyrics. Due to the softer orchestration and leisurely rhythm, some have nicknamed this genre “limp salsa”.

Samba

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Etymology and definition#

There is no consensus among experts on the etymology of the term “samba”. A traditionalist view that defends that the etymon comes from the Bantu was in the Diário de Pernambuco in 1830. The term was documented in the publication in a note opposing the sending of soldiers to the countryside of Pernambuco State as a disciplinary measure, as there they could be idle and entertained with “fishing of corrals traps to catch fish , and climbing coconut trees, in whose hobbies viola and samba will be welcomed “. Another old appearance was recorded in the humorous Recife newspaper O Carapuceiro, dated February 1838, when Father Miguel Lopes Gama of Sacramento wrote against what he called “the samba d’almocreve” – not referring to the future musical genre, but a kind of merriment (dance drama) popular for black people of that time. According to Hiram Araújo da Costa, over the centuries, the festival of dances of enslaved people in Bahia were called samba. In Rio de Janeiro, the word only became known at the end of the 19th century, when it was linked to rural festivities, to the area of Black people and to the “north” of the country, that is, the Brazilian Northeast. For many years of the Brazilian colonial and imperial history, the terms “batuque” or “samba” were used in any manifestation of African origins that brought together dances (mainly umbigada), songs and uses of Black people instruments. At the end of the 19th century, “samba” was present in the Portuguese language, designating different types of popular dances performed by African slaves (xiba, fandango, catereté, candomblé, baião) that assumed its own characteristics in each Brazilian state, not only by the diversity of the ethnic groups of the African diaspora, but also the peculiarity of each region in which they were settlers. In the twentieth century, the term was gaining new meanings, as for a “circle dance similar to batuque” and a “genre of popular song”. The use of the word in a musical context was documented as early as 1913 in the song Em casa de baiana, registered as a “samba de partido-alto”; then in the following year, for the works A viola está magoada and Moleque vagabundo; finally, in 1916, for the famous song Pelo Telefone, released as “samba carnavalesco” (“carnival samba”) and regarded as the founding landmark of modern Carioca samba.

Samba funk

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Characteristics#

Samba funk is a hybrid musical subgenre that combines elements of Brazilian samba with American funk, its rhythm mostly composed by keyboards, electric guitar, bass guitar, drums and percussion, creating a hybrid and contagious sound. The bass, drums and guitar lines transition between the two styles. Samba funk uses instrumentation, timbres, and effects common in 1970s American funk bands, such as the Rhodes electric piano, clavinet, and Moog and Oberheim analog synthesizers. Musical effects such as the wah-wah on the guitar also contribute to the genre’s sound.

Samba reggae

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History and background#

Samba-reggae arose in the context of the black pride movement that occurred in the city of Salvador de Bahia, around 69, and it still carries connotations of ethnic identity and pride for Afro-Brazilians today. Bahia’s population has a large proportion of dark-skinned Brazilians who are descendants of African slaves who were brought to Brazil by the Portuguese in the 17th and 18th centuries. These Afro-Brazilians played a major role in the early development of samba, which first took form in a Bahian style of dance and music called “samba de roda”, probably in the late 19th century. Samba de roda was brought to Rio de Janeiro by Bahians around 1900, where it was combined with harmonic and rhythmic elements from European influences (such as chorinho and military marches). By the 1930s, samba de roda had developed into the faster, more harmonically complex Rio-style samba that is now played in Rio’s Carnival. Through the middle of the 20th century this new Rio-style samba spread throughout Brazil. Of note, the low pitch bass that was heard on beats 1 and 3, and the higher pitched surdo on beats 2 and 4 in Bahia, brought by the slaves, was changed in Samba-the low pitch was moved to beats 2 and 4. The paradoxical result was that samba was brought back to Bahia from Rio, but now in a highly altered form, and no longer associated with Afro-Brazilians. Thus, in the mid-20th century, the city of Salvador had many samba schools that were modeled on the samba schools of Rio, as well as blocos (informal street percussion groups), both of which performed Rio-style samba in Carnival parades every year. Yet, ironically, black Brazilians did not participate in these Carnival parades or in the blocos, since they were not allowed to participate. Samba-reggae represents an effort by black Brazilians to develop a Carnival parade music that they could call their own, and to form all-black or mostly-black blocos with which they could parade during Carnival. The afro bloco music was very different because they aimed to recreate and strengthen their community through their music.

Samba rock

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Origins#

Samba rock’s origins lie in the predominantly black favelas of São Paulo during the late 1950s, when Brazilian radio and dance halls were reached by the global spread of American rock and roll and related African-American music such as blues and jazz. Its first incarnation was as a dance phenomenon at community block parties that began to play these styles alongside traditional samba and bolero music. These parties eventually moved to larger venues hosted by disc jockeys. The first known samba-rock deejay Osvaldo Pereira—known by his stage name “Orquestra Invisível (Invisible Orchestra) Let’s Dance”—debuted in 1958 in downtown São Paulo. “The parties started to get crowded, and the rooms for the parties started to get larger”, Pereira recounted. “Then, I thought of building my own equipment, which had to be powerful, and faithful to the sound of the live orchestras.” His early equipment included a 100-watt sound system featuring a rudimentary version of a crossover, which allowed Pereira to control the frequencies of the music.

Samba-canção

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

It appeared after the World War II, at the end of the 1940s, and practically disappeared in the middle of the 1960s when majority of composers began to present their songs without category denomination. The name is somewhat arbitrary, adopted by the music industry, that is, publishers and record companies, and some composers. Like many popular songs of the world, Samba-canção (plural ‘sambas-canções’)’s principal theme is the love relationship, typically moaning for a lost love. Tempo is moderate or a little slower. The denomination suggests that the song is more sophisticated, less earthy, than ordinary samba songs.

Samba-enredo

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Background#

“Samba-enredo” translates literally in Portuguese a samba-theme, which is thematically bonded to the selected special theme (enredo) of its samba school and narrates the story, which it told by the samba schools, in a lyrical form. Each samba school performs one song in the Carnaval parade. A new song must be written each year for each school; they must be on Brazilian topics. The Carnaval parade is among other things a samba competition, with judges, who rank the new sambas according to their perceived merit. Being by definition topical, sambas-enredo are seldom performed outside of the Carnaval environment. The samba-enredo is one of the criteria used by the Judging committee to decide who is the winner of the Carnaval parade competition. The samba-enredo must be well sung by the samba school’s puxador (or singer) or the school will lose points. While the “puxador” (the samba-enredo singer) sings, everyone marching in the Carnaval parade sings the samba-enredo along with him, and harmony is another judging criterion. For each samba school, choosing the following year’s samba-enredo is a long process. Well in advance of the Carnaval parade, each samba school holds a contest for writing the song. The song is written by samba composers from within the school itself (“Ala dos Compositores”), or sometimes from outside composers, normally in “parcerias” (partnerships). Each school receives many—sometimes hundreds—songs, sometimes hundreds of them, each hoping to be the next samba-enredo for that year. The samba-enredo is written by these numerous composers mentioned above only after the Carnival Art Director, or “Carnavalesco”, officially publishes the samba school’s parade theme synopsis for the year. After a careful explanation of the parade-theme, many times done by the Carnival Art Director himself, composers may ask questions in order to clarify the synopsis, so they can start writing the samba-enredos.

Samba-sincopado

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Etymology#

The word syncope comes from the Greek syncopé, meaning “suppression” or “cut”. In medicine, syncope indicates a momentary stop or decrease in heart rate, accompanied by suspension of breathing and temporary loss of consciousness. In grammar, syncope means the deletion of phonemes in a word. In both medicine and grammar, the term syncope suggests a change or alteration in the rhythm of the body or tongue. In music, syncopation indicates deviations in the rhythmic pattern in which the sound—articulated in the weak part of the beat or bar—continues in the strong part of the next beat. It indicates the writing of a weak beat of a bar, prolonged by another beat of greater or equal duration. Modern urban samba, which emerged in Rio de Janeiro in the 1910s, was closely linked to the maxixe. At the end of the 1920s, samba underwent major rhythmic transformations, changing the way it was played, sung and danced compared with the first generation of samba players—such as Sinhô, Donga and João da Baiana. Doing away with the old samba amaxixado, this new form of samba had a more syncopated cadence and was supported more by percussion. Samba itself became syncopated, but in samba-sincopado, syncopation (displacement) was pushed to its ultimate consequences.

Sertanejo music

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Background#

“Sertanejo” is derived from sertão, a general term for rural backlands away from coastal metropolitan regions, although sertão itself is also often used in a narrow sense referring to the interior away from the Brazilian Northeast. The Sertanejo people, from the Northeast of Brazil, are different in several aspects when compared to the Caipira people, who originate from São Paulo, being two distinct Brazilian cultures.

History#

Sertanejo music is a subgenre of Caipira music, recorded for the first time, based on recordings made by the journalist and writer Cornélio Pires, in 1929. The introduction of the electric guitar and pop music influences by duo Leo Canhoto e Robertinho in the late 1960s marked the start of Sertanejo music, separating it from Caipira music. One member of the Jovem Guarda musical movement, singer Sergio Reis switched from pop to sertanejo in the 1970, which contributed to a wider acceptance of the genre. At that time, sertanejo music was usually performed in circuses, rodeos, and AM radio stations. Early as the 1980s, this penetration extended to FM radio and also on television – either in weekly programs on Sunday morning or even making it into soap operas soundtracks or special one-off TV programs. During the 1980s, there was a mass commercial exploitation of sertanejo, coupled in some cases, to a rereading of international hits and even the Jovem Guarda’s. In this new romantic trend of country music countless artists emerged, almost always in pairs, among which, Trio Parada Dura, Chitãozinho & Xororó, Leandro e Leonardo, Zeze Di Camargo e Luciano, Chrystian & Ralf, João Paulo & Daniel, Chico Rey & Parana, João Mineiro and Marciano, Gian and Giovani, Rick & Renner, Gilberto e Gilmar, Alan e Aladim, along with some female singers, such as Roberta Miranda, Aula Miranda and Nalva Aguiar. Some of the successes of this phase are “Fio de Cabelo”, by Marciano and Darci Rossi, “Apartmento 37 “, Leo Canhoto, “Pense em Mim, " Douglas in May, “Entre Tapas e Beijos”, Nilton Lamas and Antonio Bueno and “Evidências”, by Jose Augusto and Paulo Sérgio Valle.

Soca music

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Etymology#

“Soca” is a portmanteau of the words “soul” and “calypso”. The genre was defined by Lord Shorty as the “Soul of Calypso”. The word was originally spelled s-o-k-a-h by Lord Shorty. In a 1979 interview with Carnival Magazine, Lord Shorty stated that he “came up with the name soca. I invented soca. And I never spelt it s-o-c-a. It was s-o-k-a-h to reflect the East Indian influence.” The use of kah (the Hindi word for “divine”) referenced the genre’s Indo-Caribbean influence. However, s-o-c-a quickly became the popular spelling after a journalist, Ivor Ferreira, misspelled the name. The article, which included an interview with Lord Shorty, was published during the 1976 Trinidad Carnival season. The article said “Shorty is doing soca”. Lord Shorty confirmed the error, but chose to leave it that way to avoid confusion.

Son cubano

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Etymology and cognates#

In Spanish, the word son, from Latin sonus, denotes a pleasant sound, particularly a musical one. In eastern Cuba, the term began to be used to refer to the music of the highlands towards the late 19th century. To distinguish it from similar genres from other countries (such as son mexicano and son guatemalteco), the term son cubano is most commonly used. In Cuba, various qualifiers are used to distinguish the regional variants of the genre. These include son montuno, son oriental, son santiaguero and son habanero. The adjective soneado refers to songs and styles which incorporate the tempo and syncopation of the son, or even its montunos. Generally, there is an explicit difference between styles that incorporate elements of the son partially or totally, as evidenced by the distinction between bolero soneado and bolero-son. The term sonora refers to conjuntos with smoother trumpet sections such as Sonora Matancera and Sonora Ponceña.

Son jalisciense

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

The early origins of the son jalisciense and other early Mexican sones is not very well documented, as it was mostly an aural and local tradition until the early 20th century. It included rhythmic components that originated in Spain, pre-colonial Mexico, and different Indigenous regions. In the wake of the Spanish colonization of Mexico in the 16th century, they also brought many precursors to modern European instruments. This included winds and strings which were quickly adopted by the native population. According to legend, the genre of son jalisciense originated in the town of Cocula, Jalisco, where the traditional characteristics were solidified in the latter half of the 19th century. It is even believed that the word “mariachi” originated from a now-extinct language of this region. Following the Mexican Revolution, the prominence of mariachi (and thus the son jalisciense which is a fundamental component of mariachi) began to skyrocket. It became a symbol of national pride, and mariachis became a fixture of government events. It was during this time that the music underwent significant urbanization and standardization. Many of the most successful local groups of musicians, such as Mariachi Vargas de Tecalitlán began migrating to Mexico City. It was here that recording catapulted mariachi to be one of Mexico’s most popular forms of art by the 1940s. Throughout this period the typical size of the group grew, with the addition of trumpets and an increased number of violins, usually meaning three or more. They complemented a rhythm section of vihuela, guitarrón, classical guitar, and harp, which still saw occasional use. The 1950s and 1960s are today regarded as a golden age for the style, as mariachi reached its cultural zenith in Mexico, and many of the most popular and renowned sones were written or recorded during this time. Mariachi Vargas was the most popular and influential mariachi during this time, and their albums from this generation live on as some of the defining mariachi recordings. In the second half of the 20th century, mariachi began to achieve popularity and mainstay status in the United States as well, due to the increasing number of American citizens with Mexican heritage. The first mariachi group in the US was started by Nati Cano in 1961, and since mariachi has only bloomed as both a cultural and academic interest in the states. Linda Ronstadt’s 1987 album Canciones de Mi Padre, which features several sones jaliscienses became a smash hit, further elevating the prominence of the style in the US and Worldwide.

Son jarocho

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Characteristics#

The genre combines elements from indigenous (primarily Huastecan), Baroque music from Southern Spain (fandango) and the Western African music of slaves taken to the Caribbean; reflecting the population which evolved in the region from Spanish colonial times. It is closely related to several other genres in meter which appeared throughout Hispanic America from the 17th to the 19th century; such as the Cuban son, the Venezuelan and Colombian joropo and the Chilean cueca. Lyrics include humorous verses and subjects such as love, nature, sailors, and cattle breeding that still reflect life in colonial and 19th century Mexico. Verses are often repeated in antimetabole form. Verses are often shared with the wider Mexican and Hispanic Caribbean repertoire and some have even been borrowed from famous works by writers of the Spanish “Siglo de Oro”. It is usually performed by an ensemble of musicians and instruments which collectively are termed a “conjunto jarocho”. Son jarocho is often played only on jaranas and sung in a style in which several singers exchange improvised verses called décimas, often with humorous or risqué content. The high-pitched falsetto singing is likely of indigenous origin.

Son mexicano

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Definition#

The term “son” is given to a category of Mexican folk music covering various styles that vary by region. However, these styles share several common rhythms, lyrics and dance characteristics. The music is a mix of Spanish, African and Indigenous elements, which mingled at least as far back as the 18th century. It is most popular on the Gulf Coast and certain sections of the Pacific coast, with three main regional varieties: son jarocho in Veracruz, son huasteco (or huapango) in the La Huasteca region and son jaliscience, which has morphed into what is now known as Mariachi. Most bands generally sing but there are usually one or two lead singers. Most songs are about love, mythological figures, legends, the landscapes of Mexico as well as political and religious themes. It is strongly tied to social dance, which varies by region, but not ceremonial. Dancers are generally couples executing zapateados on raised wooden dance floors. Notable groups include Trío Los Chiles, which performs son huasteco; Son del pueblo, which performs songs from Guerrero and Oaxaca; Caña dulce caña brava, which performs son jarocho, and Chintacastla which performs son music from Tixtla in southern Veracruz.

Son montuno

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Background#

Son cubano developed in the late 19th century and soon became the most important genre of Cuban popular music. In addition, it is perhaps the most flexible of all forms of Latin American music, and is the foundation of many Cuban-based dance forms, and salsa. Its great strength is its fusion between European and African musical traditions. The son arose in Oriente, merging the Spanish guitar and lyrical traditions with Afro-Cuban percussion and rhythms. We now know that its history as a distinct form is relatively recent. There is no evidence that it goes back further than the end of the nineteenth century. It moved from Oriente to Havana in about 1909, carried by members of the Permanent (the Army), who were sent out of their areas of origin as a matter of policy. The first recordings were in 1918. There are many types of son, of which the son montuno is one. The term has been used in several ways. Probably the ‘montuno’ originally referred to its origin in the mountainous regions of eastern Cuba; eventually, it was used more to describe the final up-tempo section of a son, with its semi-improvisation, repetitive vocal refrain and brash instrumental climax. The term was being used in the 1920s, when son sextetos set up in Havana and competed strongly with the older danzones.

Songo music

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Timbales#

With songo, the timbales were expanded with the addition of a kick bass drum, and sometimes a snare drum and hi-hat. Songo uses a Cuban-style timbale/drum kit hybrid, which can be anything from standard timbales with kick, to a full drum kit augmented with timbales, woodblock, and various cowbells. Songo was the first Cuban popular dance rhythm to blend rumba and North American funk rhythms. The most basic songo bell pattern is an embellishment of the Matanzas-style cáscara pattern for guaguancó, traditionally played on a guagua (hollowed piece of bamboo). In both patterns the right hand (lower notes) plays the four main beats, while the left hand plays offbeats. The right hand is typically played on a closed hi-hat, woodblock, or cowbell. The left hand is typically played on the snare rim, snare, cowbell(s), or toms. The left hand portion of the pattern is expressed in a wide variety of melodic motifs, and timbres. See: “Songo Patterns on Drum Kit” (Changuito).

Space age pop

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

External links#

The Space Age pop-music page
Gallery of Space Age pop album covers

Stronda

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Suyá music

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Performance context and history#

Some of the Suyá Indians’ singing occurs in the men’s house. Suyá music, like that of most Ge-speaking Indians, is vocal—sometimes accompanied by rattles, but very rarely. Throughout Suyá history, singing and vocal music has been one part of a larger oral tradition and oral expression. The Suyá people decorate their earlobes and lower lips with heavy disks; this is believed to signify the importance of vocalization and listening. Suyá music is ceremonial. Their songs were originally learned by a few special men and women, based on age, sex, and whichever group they belong to. These oral expressions are usually mostly masculine in sound. Suyá music exists in different forms: *Speech refers to all kinds of speech that are used by the Suyá people. *Instruction is used tell how to do a task, such as cooking something; the grammar in this case is that of everyday speech. Instruction has different types, for example recitative. *Song: the Suyá used songs obtained from outsiders whom they brought in to teach the village a myth or a song from their own tribe. Songs were also introduced by “men without spirits”, who claim that they can hear new songs from animals in the wild. *Invocation is a private verbal form meant to be heard by only a few people. The Suyá probably learned their invocations from the Upper Xingu Indians, most likely when the western and eastern Suyá groups began living together. These invocations were used for healing and were more important to the Suyá than herbal medicine. Each specific invocation referred to a special attribute of either an animal, a plant or another natural object. They were based on animal metaphors. For example, the invocation for an easy birth was named “small fish” because of how a fish can slip out of one’s hands very easily.

Tahona

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

The word “tahona” initially described a type of single-headed hand drum with a body made of a wooden barrel and a goatskin head, larger than the tumbadora (conga drum). The ensembles, and ultimately the music itself, also adopted the term tahona. As a genre, tahona is considered a style of Cuban rumba, and together with yambú it is one of the oldest. However, it differs from the canonical rumba styles in the fact that it developed in the eastern part of Cuba, the Oriente Province, due to the immigration of Haitian slaves following the Haitian Revolution of the 1790s. Thus, tahona exhibits similarities to tumba francesa (another Afro-Cuban style imported by Haitians) and conga (a style of street music developed in Santiago de Cuba). Initially, tahonas were holiday dances performed by the slaves and their descendants, later turning into “rural congas” (Afro-Cuban parades) performed during carnival celebrations. According to Fernando Ortiz, tahona ensembles emerged as a way of making tumbas francesas “portable”, since the drums in tumba francesas were to large to be carried in street parades. He described tahona ensembles as containing three tahonas (one repique and two fondos), one tambora, one tragaleguas (another drum), a hierro, and a guamo (an aerophone made of a sea snail). Chachás (rattles) were also added as in tumba francesa. An additional bass drum called bimba, which is smaller but deeper than the tambora, was also played by tahona ensembles. Tahona spread across Oriente to Alto Songo, La Maya and Ti Arriba. In the Havana neighborhood of Carraguao, the tahona became commonly performed on many festivities. Its popularity among bakers led many to believe that it was named after the Spanish tahona, i.e. bakery.

Tche music

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

References#

*Breves considerações estatutárias e jurídicas acerca da introdução de novos ritmos musicais e provas nos eventos tradicionalistas - Confederação Brasileira da Tradição Gaúcha

External links#

Tche Barbaridade
Tche Garotos
Tche Guri

Tecno brega

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Production and distribution#

The music is created by producers in makeshift studios, whether in bedrooms or other unused spaces. Rather than being sold in a traditional CD format, techno brega is characterized by new distribution methods. Rather than selling a CD in a store, tecno brega CDs are sold for a minimal price (averaging US$1.50) by street vendors, who often make the actual CDs themselves. Often producing their music with little concern for copyright, the music is “born free”. The street vendor is then in charge of making more copies and using the CDs as advertisements. These advertisements are for large reggae sound systems style parties, very similar to a rave. It is at these concerts that producers will make money, whether by entrance fees or by selling CDs produced that night from live music.

Tecnocumbia

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Tejano music

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Origins#

Central to the evolution of early Tejano music was the blend of traditional forms such as the corrido and mariachi, and Continental European styles, such as polka introduced by German, Polish, and Czech settlers in the late 19th century. In particular, the accordion was adopted by Tejano folk musicians at the turn of the 20th century, and it became a popular instrument for amateur musicians in Texas and Northern Mexico. Small bands known as orquestas, featuring amateur musicians, became a staple at community dances. Early inceptions of Tejano music demonstrated musical innovation, but also a social and cultural innovation in themes that countered narratives of dominant culture. At the turn of the century, Tejanos were mostly involved in ranching and agriculture. The only diversion was the occasional traveling musician who would come to the ranches and farms. Their basic instruments were the flute, guitar, and drum, and they sang songs that were passed down through the generations from songs originally sung in Mexico. One of these musicians was Lydia Mendoza, who became one of the first to record Spanish language music as part of RCA’s expansion of their popular race records of the 1920s. As these traveling musicians traveled into areas where the German Texans and other European settlers lived. Norteño/conjunto accordion pioneer Narciso Martínez, known as the “Father of Conjunto Music”, defined the accordion’s role in conjunto music. He learned many tunes from German, Polish and Czech brass bands and transposed them to accordion. Martínez gave accordion playing a new virtuosity in the 1930s, when he adopted the two button row accordion. At the same time, he formed a group with bajo sexto player Santiago Almeida. With the accordion, drums, and bajo sexto, Tejanos now had a sound they could begin to call their own. In the 1940s, Valerio Longoria introduced lyrics to conjunto music, further establishing the Tejano claim to this new sound. In the 1950s, Isidro Lopez further revolutionized the Tejano sound by emphasizing less on the traditional Spanish that Valerio used and using the new Tex-Mex instead. This created a newer sound and took us one step close to the sound we have today. In the 1960s and 70s Little Joe and The Latinaires (later renamed La Familia), The Latin Breed, Luis Ramirez Y su Latin Express, and others infused the orchestra sound into the Tejano sound, taking their influences from Pop, R&B, and other forms of music. In the late 70s and early 80s, there was a new sound emerging with up-and-coming groups like McAllen’s Espejismo, led by songwriter/lead singer Rudy Valdez, and Brownsville natives Joe Lopez, Jimmy Gonzalez, and Mazz introduced keyboard to Tejano, influenced by the disco sound of the era. During that period, La Mafia became the first Tejano band to put on rock-style shows for their generation.

Tierra Caliente music

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

Tierra Caliente music originated in the late 20th century in Mexico’s Tierra Caliente region. The genre was influenced by the technobanda sound; essentially using the same instruments such as vocals, electric keyboards, electric bass, trumpets, trombones, saxophones and drums. Some bands also utilize accordions. Tierra Caliente emphasizes the electric keyboard, giving the genre its own signature keyboard riff. The genre’s popularity was originally limited to the region in Mexico it is named after, as well as among the Mexican population from said region living in the United States, but starting in the mid-2000s, its popularity spread to other parts of Mexico; mainly in the country’s Bajío region, as well as the Mexican community from said region residing in the United States. It also gained some popularity in the Northern Triangle of Central America.

Timba

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Etymology#

Before it became the newest Cuban music and dance craze, timba was a word with several different uses yet no particular definition, mostly heard within the Afro-Cuban genre of rumba. A timbero was a complimentary term for a musician, and timba often referred to the collection of drums in a folklore ensemble. Since the 1990s, timba has referred to Cuba’s intense and slightly more aggressive music and dance form.

Tribal guarachero

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

The style originated from the lower and middle-class neighborhoods of Mexico City in 2000 and 2001. It then moved to Monterrey, Nuevo León, in 2007, before expanding to the United States in 2008. The genre’s popularity peaked in Mexico and in parts of the United States with large Mexican and Mexican-American populations in the early 2010s. One of the precursors and most popular of tribal guarachero producers is 3Ball MTY from Monterrey.

Trova

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

The founders#

Pepe Sánchez, born José Sánchez (Santiago de Cuba, 19 March 1856 – 3 January 1918), is known as the father of the trova style and the creator of the Cuban bolero. He had some experience in bufo, but had no formal training in music. With remarkable natural talent, he composed numbers in his head and never wrote them down. As a result, most of these numbers are now lost forever, though some two dozen or so survive because friends and disciples wrote them down. His first bolero, Tristezas, is still remembered today. He also created advertisement jingles before the radio. He was the model and teacher for the great trovadores who followed him. The first, and one of the longest-lived, was Sindo Garay, born Antonio Gumersindo Garay Garcia (Santiago de Cuba, 12 April 1867 – Havana, 17 July 1968). He was the most outstanding composer of trova songs, and his best have been sung and recorded many times. Perla marina, Adiós a La Habana, Mujer bayamesa, El huracán y la palma, Guarina and many others are now part of Cuba’s heritage. Garay was also musically illiterate – in fact, he only taught himself the alphabet at 16 – but in his case not only were scores recorded by others, but there are recordings as well. In the 1890s Garay got involved in the Cuban War of Independence, and decided a stay in Hispaniola (Haiti and Dominican Republic) would be a good idea. It was, and he came back with a wife. Garay settled in Havana in 1906, and in 1926 joined Rita Montaner and others to visit Paris, spending three months there singing his songs. He broadcast on radio, made recordings and survived into modern times. He used to say “Not many men have shaken hands with both José Martí and Fidel Castro!” Carlos Puebla, whose life spanned the old and the new trova, told a good joke about him: “Sindo celebrated his 100th birthday several times – in fact, whenever he was short of money!” José ‘Chicho’ Ibáñez (Corral Falso, 22 November 1875 – Havana, 18 May 1981) was the first trovador (that we know of) to specialize in the son and also on guaguancós and afrocuban rhythms from the abakuá. He played the tres rather than the Spanish guitar, and developed his own technique for this Cuban guitar. During his extremely long career, Chicho sang and played the son in streets, plazas, cafés, nightclubs and other venues throughout Cuba. In the 1920s, when the sextetos became popular, he was forced to sell his compositions to these larger groups and their composers in order to survive. His compositions include Toma, mamá, que te manda tía, Evaristo, No te metas Caridad, Ojalá (sones); Yo era dichoso, Al fin mujer (bolero-sones); Qué más me pides, La saya de Oyá (guaguancós). He worked throughout Cuba, and latterly a short film was made of him (‘See also’ below). The composer Rosendo Ruiz (Santiago de Cuba, 1 March 1885 – Havana, 1 January 1983) was a trovador almost as long-lived as Ibáñez and Garay. He wrote the criolla Mares y Arenas in 1911, the workers’ anthem Redención in 1917, the bolero Confesión, the guajira Junto al cañaveral and the pregón-son Se va el dulcerito. He was the author of a well-known guitar manual. Manuel Corona (Caibarién, 17 June 1880 – Havana 9 January 1950) started his career in a red-light district of Havana. Originally a singer-guitarist, he became a prolific composer after his hand was damaged by a pimp’s knife. It was a case of “She was a whore, and she had her man, but I loved her”. Alberto Villalón (Santiago de Cuba, 7 June 1882 – Havana 16 07 1955) advanced the trova guitar technique and had a hand in the birth of the son septetos. Garay, Ruiz, Villalón and Corona were known as the four greats of the trova, but Ibáñez and the following trovadores should be regarded as of equally high stature.

Tumba francesa

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Characteristics#

Tumba francesa combines musical traditions of West African, Bantu, French and Spanish origin. Cuban ethnomusicologists agree that the word “tumba” derives from the Bantu and Mandinka words for drum. In Cuba, the word tumba is used to denote the drums, the ensembles and the performance itself in tumba francesa.

Instrumentation#

Tumbas francesas are directed by a mistress of ceremonies called mayora de plaza. Performances generally begin with improvised solo singing in a mixture of Spanish and French patois termed kreyol cubano or patuá cubano by the lead vocalist (composé). After the introduction, the catá (a wooden cylindrical idiophone struck with two sticks) is played, and the composé alternates call and response singing with a group of female vocalists (tumberas).

Two-tone (music genre)

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History#

The two-tone sound originated among young musicians in Coventry in the West Midlands of England, who grew up listening to 1960s Jamaican music. They combined influences from ska, reggae and rocksteady with elements of punk rock and new wave. Bands considered part of the genre include the Specials, the Selecter, Madness, the Beat, Bad Manners, the Bodysnatchers and Akrylykz. The Specials’ keyboard player Jerry Dammers coined the term “two-tone”. Dammers, with the assistance of Horace Panter and graphic designer John “Teflon” Sims, developed the iconic Walt Jabsco logo (a man in a black suit, white shirt, black tie, pork pie hat, white socks and black loafers) to represent the two-tone genre. The logo, based on an early album-cover photo of Peter Tosh, included an added black-and-white check pattern. Most of the bands considered to be part of the two-tone genre were signed to 2 Tone Records (operative 1979–1985) at some point. Other record labels associated with the two-tone sound were Stiff Records and Go Feet Records. The music was especially popular among skinheads, rudies and mod revivalists.

Venezuelan merengue

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

The origins of the word are controversial. For some people, the word merengue comes from the French word “meringue”, a confection made from whipped egg whites. However, this concoction is called suspiro in Venezuela. There is a stronger link to a Haitian popular dance with that name. Another theory links the name to African words like “muserengue” or “tamtam mouringue”. In Caracas, the term merengue rucaneao designated a way of dancing with couples holding and often featuring exaggerated hip movements (which added to the craze and subsequent controversy). Dances were paid affairs, with popular prices being “a locha” ( cents) or “a medio” (25 cents) in dance halls known then as mabiles. Live accompaniment consisted of four solo instruments: trumpet, trombone, saxophone and clarinet and rhythm instruments such as the cuatro, bass and percussion (which, depending on the size of the ensemble, could be as simple as a scraper, or incorporate maracas and even a snare drum) . Travelling groups known as cañoneros walked around the neighborhoods staging impromptu performances for tips. The name “cañoneros” comes from their marketing approach, which included firing a carbide charge from a blank cannon made of a thick, hollowed-out bamboo cane.

Yu-Mex

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

In the immediate post-war period, Yugoslavia did not have much of a film industry and the majority of films were imported from the Soviet Union. Following the Tito–Stalin split of 1948, Soviet films were no longer shown in the country. At the same time, due to ideological differences, Yugoslav president Josip Broz Tito did not want his country to import American films. As a result, he turned to importing Mexican films. The fact that many Mexican films of the “Golden Age” glorified the Mexican Revolution and depicted ordinary Mexicans rising up against the oppressive Mexican state made Mexican films “revolutionary” enough to be shown in Yugoslavia. Many parallels were drawn between the struggle waged by the Yugoslav Partisans in World War II and the guerrillas who fought in the Mexican Revolution. The first Mexican film to premiere in Yugoslavia was the 1950 drama Un día de vida (One Day of Life, Jedan dan života), which became a huge hit when it appeared in Yugoslav theaters in 1952. The plot of Un día de vida, which dealt with the execution of a rebel during the Mexican Revolution, brought many Yugoslav audiences to tears, as they saw a parallel with their own experiences in World War II. Other, less political Mexican films, such as comedies and romances, also became popular. It was common for many young Yugoslavs to imitate the styles of Mexican film stars, who were seen as embodying everything that was “cool”. Because many of the films shown in Yugoslavia in the 1950s–1960s were Mexican, everything Mexican became very popular in Yugoslavia and many musicians started to don sombreros to perform Mexican music, either singing in Serbo-Croatian or in the original Spanish. The interest slowly faded after the 1970s. Some of the well-known Yu-Mex performers of the era were Nikola Karović, Slavko Perović, Ljubomir Milić and his ensemble Paloma ( Palomci, among them Rade Todosijević ), Miroslava Mrđa, Đorđe Masalović, Ana Milosavljević, Trio Tividi, Manjifiko, Nevenka Arsova, and others. Other famous singers and musicians, such as Predrag Cune Gojković and Mišo Kovač, also performed Yu-Mex songs.

Yuka (music)

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Drumming#

The Bantu word yuka means “to beat” and is also used to refer to the drums used in yuka performances. According to Fernando Ortiz, yuka drums were known in the Kongo language as ngóma bobóla mámbu, where ngóma means “drum”, bobóla “deep sound” and mámbu “collective business”. These drums are made from hollowed-out trunks of the avocado tree. Leather is nailed to one of the open ends, and the player hits the skin with both hands, the drum being slanted between his legs. The drums come in three sizes: *caja, the largest and lowest-pitched yuka drum; *mula, medium sized; *cachimbo, the smallest and highest-pitched drum, it is also known as tumba, tumbador, llamador or tahona. The yuka accompanied by this guataca bell plays a variation of the commonly used tresillo pattern.

Zouk

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Zouk béton#

The original fast carnival style of zouk, best represented by the band Kassav’, became known as “zouk béton”, “zouk chiré”, or “zouk hard”. Zouk béton is considered a synthesis of various French Antillean dance music styles of the 20th century, including kadans, konpa, and biguine.