Afro-Caribbean music

Afro-Caribbean music is a broad term for music styles originating in the Caribbean from the African diaspora. These distinctive musical art forms came about from the cultural mingling of African,

Local Caribbean#

Afro-Caribbean music began in the Caribbean as a result of the transatlantic slave trade and the creation of a neo-African culture among slaves. Afro-Caribbean music dates back as far as the 15th century, when the slave trade began. Although afro-Caribbean music existed for centuries, local recording and distribution officially began in the 1920s. Some of the earlier afro-Caribbean sub-genres to emerge included calypso, merengue, son, reggae and salsa. Due to multiple problems with production and distribution, music from the region struggled initially to gain global popularity.

Global popularity#

Afro-Caribbean music rose to popularity during the 20th century, exerting influence over many subsequent genres including jazz and hip-hop. Many of these sub-genres have been validated in recent years due to a newfound appreciation of afro-Caribbean culture and tradition. In the United States, the genre has gained popularity due to the mass media infrastructure, large immigrant population and receptive non-Caribbean audiences. Due to these factors, New York City, although not in the Caribbean, is considered another centre of afro-Caribbean music. Sub-genres that gained popularity in the United States include the rumba, salsa and reggae. These genres were particularly popular among youth during the 1970s in countries such as the United States and the United Kingdom.

Role of the transatlantic slave trade#

The origin of afro-Caribbean music traces back to the 15th century and the arrival of African people in the Caribbean via the transatlantic slave trade. The collaboration of African states with European slave traders stimulated the slave trade, eliminating the need for kidnapping or effort by the European slavers. There were many different African cultures and traditions present among the Caribbean slave population. Music, tradition and religion were important to African people. As a result, neo-African cultures began to form among slaves from different parts of Africa, combining elements from a variety of African cultures. The creation of a neo-African cultures among slaves allowed for the creation of new communities and the development of slave resistance. Music was an important factor in the recreation of community among slaves, leading to the creation of afro-Caribbean music.

Role of emancipation#

The Haitian Revolution saw the end of slavery in Haiti at the end of the 18th century. This effectively saw Haiti as the first nation in the world to abolish slavery. Following the Haitian revolution, Britain concluded the importation of slaves in 1807 and began the process of abolition in 1823. Although the slave trade was abolished in Britain in the early 19th century, the slave trade continued via the Iberian Peninsula until as late as 1873. Due to this, approximately 135 000 slaves continued to be traded annually between 1800 and 1850. The abolition of slavery restricted afro-Caribbean music in one way as it led to a decreased number of slaves arriving from Africa and a weakened link between African people living in the Caribbean and their homeland. At the same time the abolition of slavery opened the door for previously enslaved Africans to participate more freely in music again, leading to further development of afro-Caribbean music.

Stylistic influences#

Afro-Caribbean music is characterised by the combined influence of African, European and indigenous Caribbean cultures.

African music#

Many rhythms, song styles and vocal characteristics used in afro-Caribbean music are reflective of traditional African music. Dominant African influences include those from the Bantu, Kongo, Fon and Yoruba peoples. This is largely reflective of the fact that many slaves were from Western or Central Africa due to their proximity to the Atlantic seaboard.

European music#

The European influence seen in afro-Caribbean music stems from music that was popular in the colonial era such as classical, folk and dance music. The lyrics of afro-Caribbean music are most commonly in European languages such as Spanish, English or French. Over time, African elements, such as percussion and call-and-response invocations, were combined with traditional European elements. This led to the creation of a new hybrid genre, afro-Caribbean music.

Indigenous Caribbean and American music#

Afro-Caribbean music was influenced by the ceremonial-style, religious music of the native American people (including indigenous Caribbean people). Traditional elements such as call-and-response style singing and the use of percussive instruments (such as Güiros and Maracas) are reflected in afro-Caribbean music.

Polyrhythms#

The combination of multiple series of pulses is referred to as a polyrhythm. These rhythms are often created using drums such as the batá. This rhythm is used as a base, to which vocals and other instruments can be added to. The Polyrhythm pattern is common in music derived from Western and Central Africa. In afro-Caribbean music, the polyrhythm is mainly seen in the music derived from Cuba and Haiti.

Call-and-response invocations#

Call-and-response invocations refer to a vocal technique where one phrase is sung by a member of the group and then it is answered by another member, who sings a complimentary phrase. This technique was brought to the Caribbean by slaves that came from Western and Central Africa. Call-and-response invocations are used throughout the afro-Caribbean music genre, and particularly in the music derived from Cuba.

Cinquillo rhythm#

The cinquillo is a rhythmic pattern that is used in afro-Caribbean music. This rhythmic cell originated in sub-Saharan Africa and was brought to the Caribbean by enslaved people of Bantu origin. Once arriving in the Caribbean, the cinquillo beat was transformed and refined, in countries such as Haiti and Cuba, to fit the evolving afro-Caribbean music genre. The cinquillo is created by use of percussion instruments such as the claves and güiro.

Drums#

Drums are an important element of afro-Caribbean music, culture and religion. Drums are used in many Rituals and ceremonies such as the Haitian vodun ceremony. The influence of the drums in afro-Caribbean music is mixed with many popular drum varieties originating in Latin America, Europe and Africa. In most circumstances the roots of these drum types lead back to African origin. A prominent drumming influence from Africa is the use of the hands to create music over a variety of Timbres, unlike in European music, where sticks are favoured to strike the drums.

Batá#

Main article: batá drum Batá drums have an hourglass shape with a drumhead at either end. Traditionally, a batá drum would consist of a wooden base with drumheads made of skin, pulled taut, at each end.

Bombo#

Main article: bombo drum The bombo drum (also known as the bombo criollo) is another drum commonly seen in afro-Caribbean music. This drum is of South American origin and is commonly used in indigenous music of the region. The bombo drum is composed of a large, hollow wooden drum with an animal skin for the drumhead. Sound is produced on the bombo drum by striking the middle of the drumhead with the hand and by striking the rim of the drumhead with a small stick or other tool.

Congas and bongos#

Main articles: Conga drum, bongo drum Congas are tall, barrel-like, single-headed drums, usually played using the hands. Bongos are similar to congas in shape, however, they are smaller and commonly played in pairs. There are two variations of bongo drums that produce different pitches. The macho bongo produces a high pitch, popping like sound and is referred to as the male bongo. In contrast, the hembra bongo is considered the female of the pair and produces low, deep sounds. The congas and bongos originated in Cuba among African slaves and are key instruments of the afro-Caribbean music genre. These drums are reminiscent of other African style drums that inspired them such as the batá, yuka and makuta drums.

Claves#

Main article: claves Claves (also called palitos) consist of two short, round pieces of wood which are struck together to produce sound.

Maracas#

Main article: Maracas Maracas (also called boîte à de clous, caraxa, mussamba) are handheld rattles consisting of a hollow vessel (such as a Gourds or Turtle shells), filled with small items (such as Seeds, nuts or shells), attached to a handle. The Maraca is shaken to produce a rattle sound which is used to maintain tempo and rhythm. Different versions of maracas originated in South America and Africa. They were often played to accompany dancers and other musicians. Variations of maracas include versions that are worn on the wrist and versions in different shapes of sticks, hourglasses, cones or crosses. Maracas are used in many afro-Caribbean music genres including calypso, salsa and Son cubano.

Region: the Caribbean