K-pop

K-pop (; an abbreviation of "Korean popular music" ) is a form of popular music originating in South Korea. The music genre that the term is used to refer to colloquially emerged in the 1990s as a

Etymology#

The term “K-pop” is the South Korean equivalent of the Japanese “J-pop,” The first known use of the term occurred in Billboard in the October 9, 1999 edition at the end of an article titled “S. Korea To Allow Some Japanese Live Acts” by Cho Hyun-jin, then a South Korea correspondent for the magazine, which used it as a broad term for South Korean pop music. Cho himself, however, is not sure if he coined the term, since some articles stated that the word ‘K-pop’ was already being used by music industry insiders, even though he had never heard it personally. The term K-pop became popular in the 2000s, especially in an international context. In South Korea, domestic pop music is referred to as gayo (), which is still widely used within the country. In 2022, the Korean Music Awards established a separate genre-specific field for K-pop, defining its “distinct aesthetic tendencies” as dance-pop music originating from the Korean idol system with a focus on performance.

Audiovisual content#

Although K-pop generally refers to South Korean popular music and the associated industry, some consider it to be an all-encompassing genre exhibiting a wide spectrum of musical and visual elements. The French Institut national de l’audiovisuel defines K-pop as a “fusion of synthesized music, sharp dance routines and fashionable, colorful outfits.” Songs typically consist of one or a mixture of pop, rock, hip hop, R&B, and electronic music genres.

Idol trainee#

The mainstream method is to become an idol trainee through agency auditions, online auditions, or street casting. South Korean management agencies offer binding contracts to potential artists, sometimes at a young age. Trainees live together in a regulated environment and spend many hours a day learning how to sing, dance, speak foreign languages, and gain other skills in preparation for their debut. This “robotic” system of training is often criticized by Western media outlets. In 2012, The Wall Street Journal reported that the cost of training one Korean idol under SM Entertainment averaged US$3 million.

Hybrid genre and transnational values#

K-pop is a cultural product that features “values, identity and meanings that go beyond their strictly commercial value.” It is characterized by a mixture of modern Western sounds and African-American influences (including sounds from Hip-hop, R&B, Jazz, black pop, soul, funk, techno, disco, house, and Afrobeats) with a Korean aspect of performance (including synchronized dance moves, formation changes and the so-called “point choreography” consisting of hooking and repetitive key movements). It has been remarked that there is a “vision of modernization” inherent in Korean pop culture. For some, the transnational values of K-pop are responsible for its success. A commentator at the University of California, San Diego has said that “contemporary Korean pop culture is built on … transnational flows … taking place across, beyond, and outside national and institutional boundaries.” Some examples of the transnational values inherent in K-pop that may appeal to those from different ethnic, national, and religious backgrounds include a dedication to high-quality output and presentation of idols, as well as their work ethic and polite social demeanor, made possible by the training period.

Use of English phrases#

Modern K-pop is marked by its use of English phrases. Jin Dal Yong of Popular Music and Society wrote that the usage may be influenced by “Korean-Americans and/or Koreans who studied in the U.S. who take full advantage of their English fluency and cultural resources that are not found commonly among those who were raised and educated in Korea.” Korean pop music from singers or groups who are Korean-American such as Fly to the Sky, g.o.d, Rich, Yoo Seung-jun, and Drunken Tiger has both American style and English lyrics. These Korean-American singers’ music has a different style from common Korean music, which attracts the interest of young people. Foreign musicians, including rappers such as Akon, Kanye West, Ludacris, and Snoop Dogg, have also featured on K-pop songs. Entertainment companies help to expand K-pop to other parts of the world through a number of different methods. Singers need to use English since the companies want to occupy markets in the other parts of Asia, which enables them to open the Western market in the end. Most K-pop singers learn English because it is a common language in the world of music, but some singers also learn other foreign languages such as Japanese to approach the Japanese market. Artist names, song titles, and lyrics have exhibited significant growth in the usage of English words. No singers in the top fifty charts in 1990 had English in their names: people who worked in the Korean music industry viewed using Korean names as standard. In 1995, most popular singers such as Kim Gun-mo, Park Mi-kyung, Park Jin-young, Lee Seung-chul, and Byun Jin-sub still used Korean names, but fourteen of the singers and groups in the top fifty used English names, including DJ DOC, 015B, Piano, and Solid. After the 1997 financial crisis, the government stopped censoring English lyrics and Korea started to have a boom in English. Since the late 1990s, English usage in singers’ names, song titles, and lyrics has grown quickly. Seventeen singers in the top fifty charts used English names in 2000, and thirty-one did so in 2005. In 2010, forty-one singers used English names among the top fifty songs, but usually, three or four singers and groups had more than one or two songs on the chart simultaneously. Korean names (e.g. Baek Ji-young, Seo In-young, and Huh Gak) are seen less frequently, and many K-pop singers have English names (e.g. IU, Sistar, T-ara, GD & TOP, Beast, and After School). Notably, until the early 1990s, musicians with English names would transliterate them into hangul, but now singers would use English names written with the Roman alphabet. In 1995, the percentage of song titles using English in the top 50 charts was 8%. This fluctuated between 30% in 2000, 18% in 2005, and 44% in 2010. An example of a Korean song with a large proportion of English lyrics is Kara’s “Jumping,” which was released at the same time in both Korea and Japan to much success.

Marketing#

Many agencies have presented new idol groups to an audience through a “debut showcase” which consists of online marketing and television broadcast promotions as opposed to radio. Groups are given a name and a “concept” along with a marketing hook. These concepts are the type of visual and musical theme that idol groups utilize during their debut or comeback. Concepts can change between debuts and fans often distinguish between boy group concepts and girl group concepts. Concepts can also be divided between general concepts and theme concepts, such as cute or fantasy. New idol groups will often debut with a concept well known to the market to secure a successful debut. Sometimes sub-units or sub-groups are formed among existing members. Two example subgroups are Super Junior-K.R.Y., which consists of Super Junior members Kyuhyun, Ryeowook, and Yesung, and Super Junior-M, which became one of the best-selling K-pop subgroups in China. Online marketing includes music videos posted to YouTube in order to reach a worldwide audience.

Dance#

Dance is an integral part of K-pop. When combining multiple singers, the singers often switch their positions while singing and dancing by making prompt movements in synchrony, a strategy called “formation changing” (). The K-pop choreography () often includes the so-called “point dance” (), referring to a dance made up of hooking and repetitive movements within the choreography that matches the characteristics of the lyrics of the song. Super Junior’s “Sorry Sorry” and Brown Eyed Girls’ “Abracadabra” are examples of songs with notable “point” choreography. To choreograph a dance for a song requires the writers to take the tempo into account. According to Ellen Kim, a Los Angeles dancer and choreographer, a fan’s ability to do the same steps must also be considered. Consequently, K-pop choreographers have to simplify movements. Physical training is one of the largest focuses at the school, as much of a student’s schedule is based around dance and exercise. Her ideas are submitted to the entertainment company as video recordings done by professional dancers. What starts out as small movements turns into a full dance that is better able to portray the message of the song.

Fashion#

The emergence of Seo Taiji and Boys in 1992 paved the way for the development of contemporary K-pop groups. The group revolutionized the Korean music scene by incorporating rap and American hip-hop conventions into their music. This adoption of Western style extended to the fashions worn by the boy band: the members adopted a hip-hop aesthetic. Seo and bandmates’ outfits for the promotional cycle of “I Know” included vibrant streetwear such as oversized T-shirts and sweatshirts, windbreakers, overalls worn with one strap, overalls worn with one pant leg rolled up, and American sports team jerseys. Accessories included baseball caps worn backwards, bucket hats, and do-rags. As K-pop “was born of post-Seo trends,” that reflected the popular fashion trends among youth at the time. Hip-hop fashion, considered the most popular style in the late ’90s, remained, with idol groups H.O.T. and Sechs Kies wearing the style for their debut songs. The use of accessories elevated the idol’s style from everyday fashion to performance costume, like ski goggles (worn either around the head or neck), headphones worn around the neck, and oversized gloves worn to accentuate choreography moves were widely used. H.O.T.’s 1996 hit “Candy” exemplifies the level of coordination taken into account for idol’s costumes, as each member wore a designated color and accessorized with face paint, fuzzy oversized mittens, visors, bucket hats, and earmuffs, and used stuffed animals, backpacks, and messenger bags as props. While male idol groups’ costumes were constructed with similar color schemes, fabrics, and styles, the outfits worn by each member still maintained individuality. On the other hand, female idol groups of the ’90s wore homogeneous costumes, often styled identically. S.E.S.’s debut in 1997, “(‘Cause) I’m Your Girl”, and Baby Vox’s second album 1998 hit, “Ya Ya Ya,” featured the girls dressed in white outfits, “To My Boyfriend” by Fin.K.L shows idols in pink schoolgirl costumes, and “One” and “End” of Chakra presented Hindu and African style costumes. To portray a natural and somewhat saccharine image, the accessories were limited to large bows, pompom hair ornaments and hair bands. With the maturation of female idol groups and the removal of bubblegum pop in the late 1990s, the sets of female idol groups focused on following the fashion trends of the time, many of which were revealing pieces. The latest promotions of the girl groups Baby Vox and Jewelry exemplify these trends of hot pants, micro-miniskirts, crop tops, peasant blouses, transparent garments and blouses on the upper part of the torso. As K-pop became a modern hybrid of Western and Asian cultures starting from the late 2000s, fashion trends within K-pop reflected diversity and distinction as well. Fashion trends from the late 2000s to early 2010s can largely be categorized under the following: *Street: focuses on individuality; features bright colors, mix-and-match styling, graphic prints, and sports brands such as Adidas and Reebok. * Retro: aims to bring back “nostalgia” from the 1960s to 1980s; features dot prints and detailed patterns. Common clothing items include denim jackets, boot-cut pants, wide pants, hair bands, scarves, and sunglasses. * Sexy: highlights femininity and masculinity; features revealing outfits made of satin, lace, fur, and leather. Common clothing items include mini skirts, corsets, net stockings, high heels, sleeveless vests, and see-through shirts. *Black & White: emphasizes modern and chic, symbolizes elegance and charisma, mostly applied to formal wear. * Futurism: commonly worn with electronic and hip-hop genres; features popping color items, metallic details and prints; promotes a futuristic outlook. K-pop has a significant influence on fashion in Asia, where trends started by idols are followed by young audiences. Some idols have established status as fashion icons, such as G-Dragon and CL, who has repeatedly worked with fashion designer Jeremy Scott, being labeled his “muse.” According to professor Ingyu Oh, “K-pop emphasizes thin, tall, and feminine looks with adolescent or sometimes very cute facial expressions, regardless of whether they’re male or female singers.”

Government support#

The South Korean government has acknowledged benefits to the country’s export sector as a result of the Korean Wave (it was estimated in 2011 that a US$100 increase in the export of cultural products resulted in a US$412 increase in exports of other consumer goods including food, clothes, cosmetics and IT products ) and thus have subsidized certain endeavours. Government initiatives to expand the popularity of K-pop are mostly undertaken by the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism, which is responsible for the worldwide establishment of Korean Cultural Centers. South Korean embassies and consulates have also organized K-pop concerts outside the country, and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs regularly invites overseas K-pop fans to attend the annual K-Pop World Festival in South Korea. In addition to reaping economic benefits from the popularity of K-pop, the South Korean government has been taking advantage of the influence of K-pop in diplomacy. In an age of mass communication, soft power (pursuing one’s goals by persuading stakeholders using cultural and ideological power) is regarded as a more effective and pragmatic diplomatic tactic than the traditional diplomatic strategy hard power (obtaining what one wants from stakeholders through direct intimidation such as military threat and economic sanctions). Cultural diplomacy through K-pop is a form of soft power. An example of the South Korean government effort in diplomacy through K-pop is the Mnet Asian Music Awards (MAMA), a K-pop music award ceremony. Park Geun-hye (the Korean president at the time) delivered the opening statement at the 2014 MAMA, which was held in Hong Kong and sponsored by the Korean Small and Medium Business Administration (SMBA). This event was considered a deliberate endeavor by the Korean government to support Korean cultural industries in order to strengthen the nation’s international reputation and political influence. After an interval of more than a decade, approximately 190 South Korean performers, including well-known musicians Red Velvet, Lee Sun-hee, Cho Yong-pil, and Yoon Do-hyun, performed in Pyongyang, North Korea, on March 31 and April 3, 2018. Kim Jong Un was present in the audience.

Origins of Korean popular music#

The history of Korean popular music can be traced back to 1885 when an American missionary, Henry Appenzeller, began teaching American and British folk songs at a school. These songs were called changga (), and they were typically based on a popular Western melody sung with Korean lyrics. For example, the song “Oh My Darling, Clementine” became known as Simcheongga (). During the Japanese colonial period (1910–1945), the popularity of changga songs rose as Koreans expressed their feelings against Japanese oppression through music. One of the most popular songs was Huimangga (). The Japanese confiscated the existing changga collections and published lyrics books of their own. K-pop was represented by H.O.T in the early days, and it was mostly fanatical, flashy, and showed the rebellious psychology of young people in the emotional aspects. Most of the songs are relatively fast-paced and have a strong sense of rhythm, which is suitable for dancing. They often sing and dance when they perform, and the choreography urbanance is a very important factor in popularity. The first known Korean pop album was I Pungjin Sewol (), by Park Chae-seon and Lee Ryu-saek in 1925, which contained popular songs translated from Japanese. The first pop song written by a Korean composer is thought to be Nakhwayusu () sung by Lee Jeong-suk in 1929. In the 1930s singers such as Wang Su-bok, Lee Eun-pa and the Jeogori Sisters popularised folk music further.

1940s–1960s: Arrival of Western culture#

After the Korean Peninsula was partitioned into North and South following its liberation in 1945 from Japanese occupation, Western culture was introduced into South Korea on a small scale, with a few Western-styled bars and clubs playing Western music. After the Korean War (1950–1953) U.S. troops remained in South Korea, causing American and world culture to spread in South Korea and Western music to gradually become more accepted. Prominent figures of American entertainment like Nat King Cole, Marilyn Monroe and Louis Armstrong held USO shows in South Korea for the U.S. Army. These visits prompted attention from the Korean public. In 1957, the American Forces Korea Network radio started its broadcast, spreading the popularity of Western music. American music started influencing Korean music, as pentatony was gradually replaced by heptachords and popular songs started to be modeled after American ones. In the 1960s, the development of LP records and improvements in recording technology led to the pursuit of diverse voice tones. Open auditions were also held to recruit musicians to perform at the U.S. army clubs. Since South Korea was impoverished after the Korean War, skilled Korean singers regarded performing for the U.S. troops as a good means to earn money. Many singers sang for the American troops, usually in dedicated clubs, the number of which rose to 264. They performed various genres like country music, blues, jazz and rock & roll. The South Korean economy started blooming and popular music followed the trend, spread by the first commercial radio stations. Korean cinema also began to develop and Korean musicians began performing to wider audiences. The first talent contest for rock bands in Seoul was organized in 1968. Some Korean singers gained international popularity. In 1959, the Kim Sisters went to Las Vegas and became the first Korean artist to release an album in the U.S. pop market. Their cover of “Charlie Brown” reached No.7 on the Billboard Single Chart. The Kim Sisters also appeared on TV programs and radio programs and held tours in the U.S. and Europe. They made 25 appearances on The Ed Sullivan Show—more than American stars like Patti Page and Louis Armstrong (who appeared 18 times each). ’s 1961 song “The Boy in The Yellow Shirt” was covered by French singer Yvette Giraud and was also popular in Japan. In the 1960s, the Korean artists such as Shin Joong-hyun, and Patti Kim who previously performed for the U.S. army clubs reached out to the Korean public. In the mid-1960s, due to the influence of the legendary British group The Beatles, there was a rise of “group sound” in South Korea, for example, Add4 and the . Add4, Korea’s first rock group, was formed by Shin Joong-hyun in 1962 and produced Korea’s first rock song, “The Woman in the Rain,” which is a form of light rock reminiscent of the early Beatles. Shin Joong-hyun was so instrumental in the development of Korean rock music that he is regarded as the “godfather of Korean rock” in South Korea. During this period, with the rise of Western pop music and Korean rock music, trot was no longer predominant in South Korea. However, trot singers like Lee Mi-ja still managed to attract a certain level of popularity, with famous songs like “Camellia Lady” (). During the 1950s and 60s, Western pop music, Korean rock music, and trot co-existed in South Korea.

Late 1960s and 1970s: Hippie and folk influences#

At the end of the 1960s Korean pop music underwent another transformation. More and more musicians were university students and graduates who were heavily influenced by American culture and lifestyle (including the hippie movement of the 1960s) and made lighthearted music unlike their predecessors, who were influenced by war and Japanese oppression. The younger generation born after the 1950s had grown up under the U.S. influence and preferred the U.S. lifestyle, giving rise to the “youth culture” which was expressed through long hair, jeans, acoustic guitars and folk music. The folk music of that time is made up of melodies sung plainly, with the singing accompanied by a guitar or two. A majority of the folk music at that time was initiated by elite university students and those who graduated from prestigious schools. Like the activists of the U.S. student movement, they turned to folk music as the preferred music of politicized youth, who staged demonstrations against the authoritarian government. In turn, the government banned folk music due to its association with the students’ anti-government movements. In the 1970s, the Park Chung Hee government banned American pop music and Korean rock music for their association with sex and drugs. Shin Joong-hyun, the “godfather of Korean rock music,” was imprisoned in 1975 due to a marijuana scandal. In order to bolster its anti-Japanese credentials, the government also banned trot songs because of its “Japanese style” () given the influence of Japanese enka songs on trot. However, President Park actually embraced trot. One of the leading figures of the era was Hahn Dae-soo, who was raised in the United States and influenced by Bob Dylan, Leonard Cohen and John Lennon. Han’s song Mul jom juso () became iconic among young people in Korea. His daring performances and unique singing style often shocked the public and later he was banned from performing in Korea. Han moved to New York City and pursued his musical career there, only returning to his home country in the 1990s. Other notable singers of the period include Song Chang-sik, Jo Young-nam, and Yang Hee-eun. In the 1970s, DJs also started to become popular.

1980s: The era of ballads#

The 1980s saw the rise of ballad singers after ’s 1985 album “You’re Too Far Away to Get Close to” () sold more than 300,000 copies. Other popular ballad singers included Lee Moon-se () and Byun Jin-sub (), nicknamed the “Prince of Ballads”. One of the most sought-after ballad composers of the era was Lee Young-hoon (), whose songs were compiled into a modern musical in 2011 titled Gwanghwamun Yeonga (). The Asia Music Forum was launched in 1980, with representatives from five different Asian countries competing in the event. Korean singer Cho Yong-pil won first place and went on to have a successful career, performing in Hong Kong and Japan. His first album Chang bakkui yeoja () was a hit and he became the first Korean singer to take to the stage at Carnegie Hall in New York. Cho’s musical repertoire included rock, dance, trot and folk-pop. Despite his early association with rock music as an electric guitarist in a rock band, Cho Yong-pil’s initial popularity came from his trot songs which were popular in both South Korea and Japan. For example, in 1976, his trot song, “Please Return to Pusan Port” () was a great hit. Despite the temporary setback due to his involvement in a marijuana incident in 1977, he managed to bounce back with the song “The Woman Outside the Window” which reached a record-breaking sales of 1 million in 1980. In 1988, he sang “Seoul Seoul Seoul” in three languages (Korean, English and Japanese) to celebrate the 1988 Seoul Olympic Games.

1990s: Development of modern K-pop#

In the 1990s, Korean pop musicians incorporated partially Europop and mostly American popular music styles such as hip hop, rock, jazz, and electronic dance in their music. In 1992, the emergence of Seo Taiji and Boys marked a revolutionary moment in the history of K-pop. The trio debuted on MBC’s talent show on April 11, 1992, with their song “I Know” and got the lowest rating from the jury; however, the song and their self-titled debut album became so successful that it paved the way for other songs of the same format. The song’s success was attributed to its new jack swing-inspired beats and memorable chorus, as well as innovative lyrics which dealt with the problems of Korean society. A wave of successful hip hop and R&B artists followed in their footsteps, including Yoo Seung-jun, Jinusean, Solid, Deux, 1TYM and Drunken Tiger. During the late 1990s, talent agencies began to market K-pop stars by implementing an idol business model used in J-pop, where talents are selected and trained to appeal to a global audience through formal lessons or through residency programs. The extensive and intensive process includes physical and language training (a program sometimes called abusive), and potential talents are also selected for height, being much taller on average than their Japanese counterparts. Sociology professor Ingyu Oh has explained regarding looks, “K-pop emphasizes thin, tall, and feminine looks with adolescent or sometimes very cute facial expressions, regardless of whether they’re male or female singers.” These efforts increase the marketability of K-pop while also increasing South Korean soft power, which has become an important part of official policy. The 1990s saw a reactionary movement against mainstream popular culture with the rise of illegal underground music clubs and punk rock bands such as Crying Nut. but also prompted South Korea’s leaders to focus on building the nation’s cultural influence through music. The government poured millions into building infrastructure, technology, and a specific department within its Ministry of Culture for K-pop. Regulations were passed on karaoke bars, for example, to protect the interests of idols.

Agencies#

K-pop has spawned an entire industry encompassing music production houses, event management companies, music distributors, and other merchandise and service providers. The three biggest companies in terms of sales and revenue are SM Entertainment, YG Entertainment and JYP Entertainment, often referred to as the ‘Big Three.’ Recently, with the growth of HYBE, it has also come to be referred to as part of the ‘Big Four.’ These record labels also function as representative agencies for their artists. They are responsible for recruiting, financing, training, and marketing new artists as well as managing their musical activities and public relations. Currently, the agency with the greatest market share is S.M. Entertainment.

Sales and market value#

In 2009, DFSB Kollective became the first distributor of K-pop on iTunes. In 2012, the average cost of obtaining a K-pop song in South Korea amounted to US$0.10 for a single download, or $0.002 when streamed online. According to Billboard, the Korean music industry grossed nearly US$3.4 billion in the first half of 2012—a 27.8% increase on the previous year—and was recognized by Time magazine as “South Korea’s Greatest Export.” In 2017, it was estimated that the K-pop music industry had a revenue of US$5 billion. By 2019, the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI) listed South Korea as the 6th largest music market in the world, with BTS alone accounting for $4.65 billion, or 0.3%, of South Korea’s GDP. In 2024, IFPI declared K-pop the leading global genre in unit sales, across both physical and digital formats. Seventeen of the top twenty albums on the IFPI Global Album Sales Chart that year belonged to the genre.

Record charts#

Korean record charts include the Circle Digital Chart and the Billboard K-pop Hot 100. More recently, K-pop records have appeared on the Oricon Albums Chart of Japan and the Billboard Hot 100 of the United States. The Circle Digital Chart compiles data from South Korea’s various platforms, including Apple Music, Spotify, MelOn, Bugs, Vibe, Genie, Flo and Samsung Music. Some of the platforms release hourly and daily charts, which are compiled by the South Korean company iChart. There are three achievements achievable by iChart: All-Kill, Certified All-Kill, and Perfect All-Kill. a Certified All-Kill occurs when a song simultaneously places first on all of South Korea’s major music platforms real-time and daily charts. The highest achievement, a Perfect All-Kill occurs when a song simultaneously places first on South Korea’s music platforms real-time, daily and weekly charts. “Sajaegi” () is the Korean term for chart manipulation by way of bulk purchasing of albums or using bots to boost streams, which has potential to question to credibility of charts.

Genre family: Pop music genres