Africa on Music Theory Print

African heavy metal

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Southern Africa#

The author Edward Banchs traveled extensively through African countries, exploring the most prominent metal scenes, and in 2016, he published a book, titled Heavy Metal Africa: Life, Passion, and Heavy Metal in the Forgotten Continent, covering the musicians and the rise and struggles of the respective cultures in the Sub-Saharan and island countries. According to Banchs, South Africa has developed a robust metal community due to the existing music industry and a large population. South Africa In South Africa, heavy metal was introduced from the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s in Johannesburg and saw the relative success of bands such as Odyssey, Ragnärok, Urban Assault, and Voice of Destruction. The arrival of metal music in the country was controversial. For example, the government and the N.G Kerk banned certain records from being imported, and fans of the genre faced hostility from the public, with accusations of Satanism. The first black metal band in South Africa with all Black members, Demogoroth Satanum, was formed in 2009 and works to change the perception of metal music as a genre for White people and to attract more Black fans. Vulvodynia is a deathcore/grindcore band with both Black and White members. Botswana The Botswana heavy metal scene started in the 1970s, with the introduction of classic rock, and evolved into a distinctive subculture with a cowboy-inspired aesthetic. Wrust, Overthrust, and Skinflint have achieved some international success and recognition. The 2014 documentary March of the Gods: Botswana Metalheads documents the heavy metal scene in the country. In 2009, South African photographer Frank Marshall made a photo exhibition called “Renegades”, documenting the metal scene in Botswana. The fashion encyclopedia Stylepedia uses the term “Renegades” as the name for the fashion movement derived from Botswana’s metal scene. Other countries Other southern African countries such as Mozambique, Namibia, Zimbabwe, and Madagascar have developing metal scenes as well. The documentary film Terra Pesada explores the metal community in Mozambique. Namibia held a metal festival in Windhoek intermittently between 2007 and 2014, called the Windhoek Metal Fest. Zimbabwe held its first documented metal concert in Harare in 2015, and the first album in Shona, by the band Dividing the Element, was released in 2018. The Angola metal scene was documented and featured in the film Death Metal Angola. Madagascar also has a growing metal community, covered by Banchs.

African popular music

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Influence of Afro-Cuban music#

Cuban music has been popular in Sub-Saharan Africa since the mid-twentieth century. It was Cuban music, more than any other, that provided the initial template for Afropop. To the Africans, clave-based Cuban popular music sounded both familiar and exotic. The Encyclopedia of Africa v. 1. states: “Beginning in the 1940s, Afro-Cuban son groups such as Septeto Habanero and Trio Matamoros gained widespread popularity in the Congo region as a result of airplay over Radio Congo Belge, a powerful radio station based in Léopoldville (now Kinshasa DRC). A proliferation of music clubs, recording studios, and concert appearances of Cuban bands in Léopoldville spurred on the Cuban music trend during the late 1940s and 1950s.” Congolese bands started doing Cuban covers and singing the lyrics phonetically. Soon, they were creating their own original Cuban-like compositions, with French lyrics. The Congolese called this new music rumba, although it was really based on the son. The Africans adapted guajeos to electric guitars, and gave them their own regional flavor. The guitar-based music gradually spread out from the Congo, increasingly taking on local sensibilities. This process eventually resulted in the establishment of several different distinct regional genres, such as soukous. Cuban popular music played a major role in the development of many contemporary genres of African popular music. John Storm Roberts states: “It was the Cuban connection, but increasingly also New York salsa, that provided the major and enduring influences—the ones that went deeper than earlier imitation or passing fashion. The Cuban connection began very early and was to last at least twenty years, being gradually absorbed and re-Africanized.” The re-working of Afro-Cuban rhythmic patterns by Africans brings the rhythms full circle. The re-working of the harmonic patterns reveals a striking difference in perception. The I, IV, V, IV, harmonic progression, commonly used in Cuban music, is heard in pop music all across the African continent, thanks to the influence of Cuban music. Those chords move in accordance with the basic tenets of Western music theory. However, as Gerhard Kubik points out, performers of African popular music do not necessarily perceive these progressions in the same way: “The harmonic cycle of C-F-G-F I-IV-V-IV prominent in Congo/Zaire popular music simply cannot be defined as a progression from tonic to subdominant to dominant and back to subdominant (on which it ends) because in the performer’s appreciation they are of equal status, and not in any hierarchical order as in Western music.” The largest wave of Cuban-based music to hit Africa was in the form of salsa. In 1974 the Fania All Stars performed in Zaire (known today as the Democratic Republic of the Congo), Africa, at the 80,000-seat Stadu du Hai in Kinshasa. This was captured on film and released as Live In Africa (Salsa Madness in the UK). The Zairean appearance occurred at a music festival held in conjunction with the Muhammad Ali/George Foreman heavyweight title fight. Local genres were already well established by this time. Even so, salsa caught on in many African countries, especially in the Senegambia and Mali. Cuban music had been the favorite of Senegal’s nightspot in the 1950s to 1960s. The Senegalese band Orchestra Baobab plays in a basic salsa style with congas and timbales, but with the addition of Wolof and Mandinka instruments and lyrics. According to Lise Waxer: “African salsa points not so much to a return of salsa to African soil (Steward 1999: 157) but to a complex process of cultural appropriation between two regions of the so-called Third World.” Since the mid-1990s African artists have also been very active through the super-group Africando, where African and New York musicians mix with leading African singers such as Bambino Diabate, Ricardo Lemvo, Ismael Lo and Salif Keita. It is still common today for an African artist to record a salsa tune, and add their own particular regional touch to it.

African reggae

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History#

The popularity of Reggae in Africa started with the spread of music by Jamaican artists like Bob Marley and Jimmy Cliff in the late 1960s and 1970s. While their music was popular around the world, it was particularly well-received in Africa. More groups followed suit, and reggae was one of the most popular genres of music in the late 1970s in Africa. In Freetown, Sierra Leone, John Nunley said that reggae was all over the urban soundscape.

Afro fusion

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Term and widespread usage#

Vincent Mantsoe and Sylvia Glasser are the pioneering figures behind “Afrofusion,” a contemporary African movement vocabulary and technique that emerged in response to the political changes following the near-end and end of the apartheid regime, a system of racial segregation that took place in South Africa from 1948 to 1991. After the musical style was globally popularized by Freshlyground and Shakira’s Waka Waka (This Time for Africa), which showcased afrofusion and soca, the term “afro fusion” was increasingly used as a hypernym to refer to both historical and as present-day examples of African music blended with other genres, for instance, Western music. Some instances include, in 2015, John Collins described the musical style as “Afro-Fusion music of Africa itself” in his biography and music criticism book Fela: Kalakuta Notes. American rapper GoldLink’s 2019 album, Diaspora, merged African, Caribbean and North American music, inclusive of a song titled, “Zulu Screams”. “Zulu Screams” demonstrated Bibi Bourelly, a German singer-songwriter of Haitian and Moroccan descent, singing in Lingala alongside British-Nigerian musical artist Maleek Berry, who was described as an “afro-fusionist” by Pitchfork.

Afro house

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Characteristics and etymology#

Afro house may have emerged after or at the same time as Kwaito started to appear in South Africa. The BPM commonly shifts between 80 and 122 and, in some instances, can even reach 160 BPM. The etymology of the name uses the prefix ‘afro’ (meaning anything relating to Africa and African culture) and the suffix, ‘house’, referring to the main genre of house music.

Notable women in Afro house#

South African record label Afrotainment (Ezase Afro) housed one of the first notable female Afro house artists, DJ Cndo, Her 2007 debut album, Finest Lady of House Vol.1, obtained gold record status. Vocalist Bucie is regarded as “the female voice of South African house music”, including Afro house, particularly with regard her Afro house hit single “Superman” which was produced by Black Coffee in 2009 and was later sampled by Drake in 2017 for his More Life album featuring Jorja Smith. British singer Seal has stated that he likes her music and mentioned that Bucie is “a great singer and artist”. co-founded Fuse Academy, a DJ academy specifically for female DJs, together with Nomdeni Mdaki. In 2016, singer Alicia Keys enlisted Black Coffee to create a remix of her track “In Common”, which was recognized and well received internationally. Zimbabwean singer and songwriter Jackie Queens launched her record label Bae Electronica, which solely showcases female house artists such as Thandi Draai, who has been “heralded as SA house music’s femmetastic triple-threat” according to Mixmag.

Afro tech

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Name and characteristics#

The name is in direct symmetry with Afro house whereas in frame of reference the prefix ‘afro’ defines anything relating to African culture as well as Africa. The suffix ’tech’ appeared to be designated on account of the evident immediate connection to techno. Vocals or lyrics are predominantly delivered in Xhosa and Zulu. Afro-tech is a combination of Afro house and techno sounds inclusive of various African percussion.

Afro-Brazilian music

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Musicians#

There are many artists that influenced the Afro-Brazilian music and culture. Gilberto Gil is one of the most well-known Afro-Brazilian artists, not only because of his award-winning music, but also because of his political activism. In his career, he won two Grammys in the Best World Music Album category and received seven Grammy nominations. Other popular artists and groups include Pixinguinha, Abigail Moura, Nei Lopes, Agnaldo Timóteo, Racionais MC’s and many more. These artists play many different genres including, but not limited to, samba, rap, jazz, rock, funk, reggae, and disco. Afro-Brazilian music was influenced by African instruments, rhythms, cultures, and beliefs that are still present in the day-to-day culture of Brazil.

Afrobeat

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History#

Afrobeat evolved in Nigeria in the late 1960s by Fela Kuti, who, with drummer Tony Allen, experimented with different contemporary music of that time. Afrobeat was influenced by a combination of different genres, such as highlife, fuji, and jùjú, as well as Yoruba vocal traditions, rhythm, and instruments. In the late 1950s, Kuti left Lagos to study abroad at the London School of Music, where he took lessons in piano and percussion and was exposed to jazz. Kuti returned to Lagos and played a highlife-jazz hybrid, albeit, without commercial success. Upon arriving in Nigeria, Kuti had also changed the name of his group to “Africa ‘70”. The new sound hailed from a club he established called the Afrika Shrine. The band maintained a five-year residency at the Afrika Shrine from 1970 to 1975 while Afrobeat thrived among Nigerian youth. Prevalent in his and Lagbaja’s music are native Nigerian harmonies and rhythms, taking contrasting elements and combining, modernizing, and improvising upon them. Politics is essential to Afrobeat because Kuti uses social criticism to pave the way for change. His message can be described as confrontational and controversial, which relates to the political climate of most African countries in the 1970s, many of which were dealing with political injustice and military corruption while recovering from the transition from colonial governments to self-determination. Many bands took up the style as the genre spread throughout the African continent. The recordings of these bands and their songs were rarely heard or exported outside the originating countries, but many can now be found on compilation albums and CDs from specialist record shops.

Afrobeats

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Characteristics#

Afrobeats (with the s) is commonly conflated with and referred to as Afrobeat (without the s); however, these two are distinct, sound differently and are not the same. Afrobeat is a genre that developed in the 1960s and 1970s, taking influences from Fuji music and highlife, mixed in with American jazz and funk. Characteristics of Afrobeat include big bands, long instrumental solos, and complex jazzy rhythms. The name was coined by Nigerian afrobeat pioneer Fela Kuti. Fela Kuti and his longtime partner, drummer Tony Allen, are often credited for laying the groundwork for what would become afrobeats. This is in contrast to the Afrobeats sound, pioneered in the 2000s and 2010s. While afrobeats takes on influences from afrobeat, it is a diverse fusion of various different genres such as British house music, hiplife, hip hop, dancehall, soca, jùjú music, highlife, R&B, ndombolo, Naija beats, Azonto, and palm-wine music. Afrobeats is most identifiable by its signature driving drum beat rhythms, whether electronic or instrumental. These beats harken to the stylings of a variety of traditional African drum beats across West Africa as well as the precursory genre Afrobeat. The beat in Afrobeats music is not just a base for the melody, but acts as a major character of the song, taking a lead role that is sometimes equal to or of greater importance than the lyrics and almost always more central than the other instrumentals. Afrobeats shares a similar momentum and tempo to house music. Usually using the 4/4 time signature common in Western music, afrobeats commonly features a 3–2 or 2–3 rhythm called a clave. Another distinction within Afrobeats is the notably West African, specifically Nigerian or Ghanaian, accented English that is often blended with local slangs, pidgin English, as well as local Nigerian or Ghanaian languages depending on the backgrounds of the performers. Sampling is sometimes used within Afrobeats music. Burna Boy and Wizkid, for example, have both sampled Fela Kuti.

Agbadza

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Origin#

Agbadza finds its origin in the times of war. The Ewe people went through various times of war and oppression before settling down in the Volta Region of Ghana and in Southern Togo. Through Agbadza, at the time known as Atrikpui, Ewe singers and poets sang about battles, life and death, heroism, cowardice, migration, conquest, imperialism, and a warrior ethos. The move towards Agbadza was done due to a period of peace that was enjoyed by the Ewes around the 1920s, and so instead they decided to use some of their old songs as entertainment. Today, Agbadza is the most famous and widely played Ewe dance.

Alté

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Characteristics#

Alté fuses a wide array of musical influences from afrobeats, rap, R&B, soul, dancehall, and others. The term was coined by DRB LasGidi members and was first heard on Boj’s 2014 song “Paper”; it was later used to describe left-field styles of music. TeeZee explained about the term saying “Alté is Nigerian lingo for ‘alternative’ which means freedom of expression essentially through any medium. It has been going on since the 1960s as Nigerians always experimented with music. It became recognized as a style or genre from about 2012 upwards and it broke into the mainstream in 2016 with the rise of its new stars.” Its fashion culture has been inspired by the early 2000s, and its music videos have been inspired by 1990s Nollywood horror drama.

Amapiano

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Origins#

There is no single “true founder” of amapiano. As a result, there is ambiguity and debate concerning its origin, with various accounts of the musical styles in the Johannesburg townships. Because it has some similarities with bacardi house, some people assert the genre began in Pretoria but it remains uncertain. Various accounts of who formed the popular genre make it impossible to accurately pinpoint its origin. The word amapiano is a Zulu word that can be loosely translated to “pianos.” The genre is mostly sung in eleven of South Africa’s 12 official languages such as IsiZulu, IsiXhosa, SiSwati, Sesotho, Sepedi, Setswana, English, Xitsonga, Tshivenda, Afrikaans, or IsiNdebele.

Apala

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Apala fusion, apala pop, apala trap and street pop#

Variant styles of apala include apala pop, apala trap, and apala-fusion, with musical artists such as Terry Apala, Olamide, DJ Tunez and Seyi Vibez being prominent figures associated with apala-centered musical styles. Street pop, also known as street hop, is a genre that emerged in Nigeria in the 21st century. It blends experimental rap with vocal performance, integrating elements of Nigerian hip hop, Nigerian street music, and contemporary African genres. Street pop incorporates aspects of Western music, and its sound is notably influenced by apala music.

Azonto

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History#

Azonto is a communicative dance believed to originate from “Apaa” which literally means to work. Apaa was used to show the profession of an individual. The azonto dance has since grown further to relay coded messages. The dance later got into the minds of most Ghanaians. In 2013, most Ghanaian music videos were full of Azonto dance and later spread to most African countries and other parts of the world. Popular music researcher Jesse Weaver Shipley claims that like hiplife, the popularity of Azonto is a direct result of its interactions in diaspora. Azonto

Baganda music

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Musical instruments#

In addition to voice, a range of instruments are used, including the Amadinda, the Akadinda xylophones, the Ennanga harp, the Etongoli lyre, drums, and the Kadongo (plural “budongo”) lamellophone. Amadinda, akadinda, ennanga, and entongoli, as well as several types of drums, are used in the courtly music of the Kabaka, the king of Buganda. The kadongo, on the other hand, was more recently introduced to Baganda music, dating to the early 20th century. For this reason, budongo music is not part of the traditional court music.

Baka music

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Dance#

Every part of the forest has its own dance ritual. Many dances used for different things. They are performed by skilled dancers, who usually have gone through specific initiation. They are done for men initiations, healing, funerals, and keeping the community close together. In a dance, the dancers do structured improvisation. They know when and how to add or change a phrase or a beat.

Vocal music#

The most common voice technique is Jodel. It goes from the chest to the head. Jodel is often performed on syllables or sounds without any meaning.

Balwo

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Origins#

The Balwo genre was founded by Abdi Sinimo, a Somali of the Reer Nuur subclan of the Gadabuursi. The first Heelo (Which is considered a sub genre of Balwo) was brought fourth by Abdi Sinimo as well. In 1945, while working as a lorry driver for the Djiboutian Port Authority, Abdi Sinimo was driving his truck and had experienced misfortune when around the Zeila area, thus the first Balwo was created. He called it “Balwo” (meaning misfortune in Somali), because of the remoteness of where his truck had experienced difficulty. The Balwo is a simple love lyric that has revolutionized modern Somali music. Another artist who made significant contributions to the genre was Abdullahi Qarshe, who is credited with the introduction of the kaban (oud) as an accompaniment to Somali music. In an interview with Abdullahi Qarshe, he affirmed that “modern music was in the air at the time of Abdi Sinimo, who is widely regarded as the genius who formulated and organized it into the belwo and thus took well deserved credit and honor for it.”

Bango (music)

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Origin of Bango#

Bango originated from the spread of Christianity along the Kenyan coast. It developed in mission stations such as Rabai (1844), Ribe (1862), Freretown (1873), and Mazeras (1893). Freretown, located on the coastal mainland east of Mombasa, was established as a settlement for freed slaves from Tanzania, Malawi, and Zambia (Morton, 2018). The early residents were therefore not from the Mijikenda community. Over time, the mission stations also received people fleeing hunger and civil unrest in Mombasa, including early pioneers of bango music such as Joseph Katana Ngala. Traditional African drums (ngoma) were prohibited in these mission stations, as missionaries viewed them as inappropriate. Instead, they formed the Freed Slave Force and provided brass drums, trumpets, and military-style uniforms. These instruments accompanied church hymns and helped musicians develop their skills. The brass band tradition, known as beni, was initially performed only on religious and public holidays but later became a popular entertainment genre. Beni was eventually replaced by dansi, a more sophisticated dance style. Both beni and dansi played important roles in uniting coastal communities, particularly through weddings—much like bango does today. In the early 1960s, Muslim beni artists from Kaloleni and Mariakani transformed the genre into Brasso. Initially performed for government functions, Brasso later became a popular entertainment style. Brasso bands performed at festivals in Mwembe Tayari and were eventually invited to mission stations where jazz and rhumba were also played. Coastal genres at the time had strong religious associations: Swahili communities embraced beni, while Christians embraced dansi, which later incorporated jazz and rhumba. Mijikenda artists transformed Beni → Dansi → Brasso → Bango by the 1980s. Five Brasso bands were formed in Ribe: the Mijikenda Band, Mtito Band, Batito Band, Utamaduni Band, and Utajiju Band. These bands performed instrumental music, composed original songs, and recorded their own work. They performed not only at weddings but also at parties and funerals, attracting diverse audiences. Bango received its name in 1987 when Ngala performed at his cousin’s wedding in Freretown. After exhausting their “golden rhumba oldies,” Ngala and his band performed a simple song he had composed, “Naitaka Bango.” The audience enthusiastically embraced it, singing along to the chorus: “Naitaka bango, bango, bango. Naitaka bango tena naitaka kamili” (“I want my money, and I want it in full”). The song narrates a man demanding repayment of one shilling—then colloquially called bango—from a friend named Kazungu. Despite Ngala’s initial hesitation, the song became extremely popular. The release of the Naitaka Bango album in 1990 brought widespread recognition to Ngala’s group. The song’s rhythm, slightly different from rhumba, became popular at weddings across Mombasa, Freretown, Rabai, Mazeras, Ribe, Kaloleni, and Mariakani. Fans began referring to Ngala as “Mzee Bango.”

Batuque (Cape Verde)

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As a music genre#

As a music genre, the batuque is characterized by having an andante tempo, a 6/8 or 3/4 measure and traditionally it is just melodic, i.e., it is just sung, it has no polyphonic accompaniment. When compared with the other musical genres from Cape Verde, the batuque has a call and response structure, and it is the only genre that is polyrhythmic. In fact, analyzing the rhythm, one finds out that it is a 3-beat rhythm over a 2-beat rhythm. In its traditional form, the batuque is organized as if it were an orchestral crescendo. It possesses two movements (if we may call them so): In older times the music began with an introduction on the cimboa that provided the base musical line. Nowadays the usage of that instrument is extinct. The first movement is called, in Creole, galion . In this movement one of the performers (called batukaderas ) executes a polyrhythmic hit, while the others execute a 2-beat hit, clapping hands or slapping a cloth.

Benga music

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Luo, Kamba & Kenyan Modern Benga#

The Luo of Kenya have long played an eight-string lyre called nyatiti, and guitarists from the area sought to imitate the instrument’s syncopated melodies. In benga, the electric bass guitar is played in a style reminiscent of the nyatiti. As late as the turn of the twentieth century, this bass in nyatiti supported the rhythm essential in transmitting knowledge about society through music. Opondo Owenga of Gem Yala, the grandfather of Odhiambo Siangla, was known for employing music as a means of teaching the history of the Luo. The father of the popular Luo benga is George Ramogi (Omogi Wuod Weta) and CK Jazz. He helped the benga enthusiasts by recording their benga music in different labels in the capital city of Nairobi. Dr. Mengo of Victoria Jazz was a protege of George Ramogi. In 1967, the first major benga band, Shirati Jazz, was formed by Daniel Owino Misiani. The group launched a string of hits that were East Africa’s biggest songs throughout the 1970s and 1980s. Shirati Jazz’s biggest rival was Victoria Jazz, formed in 1972 by Ochieng Nelly Mengo and Collela Mazee. Despite many personnel changes, Victoria Jazz remained popular throughout the 1970s, when the Voice of Kenya radio station pushed an onslaught of East African pop. Victoria C Band of Awino Lawi was one of the splinter group of Victoria Jazz. 1997 saw the death of three prominent Luo benga artists, Okatch Biggy of Heka Heka Band, George Ramogi and Prince Jully. The Jolly Boys Band of Prince Jully was taken over by his wife Princess Jully and she has since been a leading female benga musician. Another famous benga band Migori Super Stars was formed in the mid-70s and was led by Musa Olwete which later split to form another popular benga band Migori Super Stars C with musicians such as Joseph Ochola (Kasongo Polo Menyo), Onyango Jamba, Ochieng’ Denge denge and others. More modern benga artists include Kapere Jazz Band and the rootsy Ogwang Lelo Okoth. The new millennium has seen the emergence of Dola Kabarry and Musa Juma. The latter saw his career cut short as he died in 2011. MJ, as he was popularly known to his fans, developed a kind of benga that infused elements of rumba. He was able to mold other musicians such as John Junior, Ogonji, Madanji, and his late brother Omondi Tonny. Currently, Odhiambo Tusker of Malela Kings Band is considered the superstar of Luo benga music, with all his music loved by people of all ages. There are also other benga artists based countries other than Kenya, such as the American/Kenyan group Extra Golden.

Berber music

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Musical/vocal styles#

Berber music is characterized by its use of folk oral traditions, as well as particular scales and rhythmic patterns, which include pentatonic music and African rhythms. All these elements are combined to form one of the main sources of entertainment in Berber social ceremonies like marriages, as well as verses, tales and songs.

Instrumentation#

The Berber people are spread out over a large part of Africa, but are mostly concentrated in the northwestern region of Africa. They use a vast array of both melodic and percussive instruments. The following instruments are part of their secular and religious dance and song: *Taghanimt, an end-blown reed flute. Used mostly to accompany songs rather than dance, the taghanimt has a rich, breathy texture. *Mizwid, a type of bagpipe; the term literally means “bag” or “food pouch”. *Zukra (Tunisia) or ghaita (Morocco). In both countries, these instruments are combined with several percussive instruments to create large ensembles which may perform at public festivals or similar occasions. *Nafir, a long natural horn, a type of valveless trumpet. This instrument is used mostly as a signaling instrument to send out messages to large groups, although it also has some performance value. *Ginbri (Morocco), a fretless plucked string instrument with a skin stretched over its body on the playing side: the skin has the same acoustic function as the membrane on a banjo. Most ensembles have at least one ginbri, although some have more than one. *Rebab, a long-necked bowed instrument with a large body. Like the ginbri, it is constructed with a skin on the string side. This instrument has only one string, usually of horse hair, and is commonly played alongside the ginbri. *Tabl (), a cylindrical double-sided drum. Although it has a similar usage and spelling to the tabla of India, no direct connection has been found between the two. The qas’ah is a large shallow kettledrum found mostly in Tunisia. Similar to the qas’ah is the Naqqarah, two ceramic kettledrums played simultaneously by both hands. *Bendir (Morocco and Algeria ), a snare frame-drum. A series of bendirs played simultaneously provide the main percussive rhythm for Berber music as the above-mentioned drums are more artistic than bendirs. *Qaraqib, a large metal castanet-like musical instrument. Normally one is held in each hand. These may be used to keep a rhythm or to play their own pattern. *Tende, a drum made with mortar and pestle.

Bigwala

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Brief history#

Bigwala is music and dance from the Basoga who are a Bantu speaking community from the southeastern region of Uganda. The Basoga are neighbors to various communities such as Baganda, Bagwere, Basamia, Banyoli and Banyoro. The Basoga, like most other communities, have various folk music and dance forms including Tamenhaibuga (do not break the gourd) dance, Nalufuka (the dance that pours) dance, Irongo (twin ritual) dance and Mayebe (leg rattles) dance. Bigwala is a Lusoga (language of the Basoga) term that refers to the set of five monotone gourd trumpets of different sizes. The Bigwala dance was named after these trumpets since they are played during the dance and are an indispensable part of the dance. The basics of this dance are Bigwala playing, drumming, singing and processional dancing A number of theories have emerged attempting to explain the origin of the Bigwala. Some scholars state that they originated from Egypt and were adopted by the Basoga through migration of other communities to modern day Uganda. However, one theory that is believed to be true by most is, Kintu, the first Muganda (Baganda man) brought the Bigwala to Buganda from the slopes of Mt.Elgon in Eastern Uganda. Thereafter, they spread to other communities like the Bunyoro, Busoga and Toro. Many believe that the spreading of the Bigwala was not coincidental but a result of some immigrants moving to Busoga region from Buganda in the 16th century led by Kintu himself. There is evidence to back this up such as the fact that there is significant resemblance between the Bigwala of the Busonga and Buganda kingdom. Additionally, the Basoga have clans bearing Kintu’s name.

Bikutsi

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Etymology#

The word ‘bikutsi’ literally means ‘beat the earth’ or ’let’s beat the earth’ (bi- indicates a plural, -kut- means ’to beat’ and -chi means ’earth’.) The name indicates a dance that is accompanied by stomping the feet on the ground.

Description#

Bikutsi is characterised by an intense rhythm (3+3, with a strong “two” feel), though it is occasionally Triple metre

History#

Popular bikutsi first appeared in the 1940s with the recording of Anne-Marie Nzié. Some twenty years later, the style was electrified with the addition of keyboards and guitars. The most popular performer of this period was Messi Me Nkonda Martin, frontman for Los Camaroes and known as “the father of modern bikutsi music”. In an effort to translate the sound and spirit of traditional bikutsi music to more modern terms, Messi incorporated the sound of a balafon into the electric guitar by linking together the guitar strings with lengths of cotton cord. Played in this way, the electric guitar sounded similar to the balafon. The music itself, then, was only slightly altered, while the image and outside perception of bikutsi music was changed enormously. Other bands during this time, such as Les Vétérans, were also popular. International acclaim began in 1987 with the formation of Les Têtes Brûlées by Jean Marie Ahanda. The late guitarist of Les Têtes Brulées, Zanzibar, invented the trick of damping the strings of his guitar with a strip of foam rubber to produce the music’s characteristic balafon-like thunk. (The balafon is a marimba-like instrument that is widely used in African folk music.) More modern performers include Jimmy Mvondo Mvelé and Mbarga Soukous. Present-day bikutsi as performed by artists like Lady Ponce, K-Tino, Racine Sagath and Natascha Bizo is sometimes regarded as controversial. It has been criticised for the perceived sexual content of its lyrics and dancing style. In this respect bikutsi resembles mapouka from Côte d’Ivoire, which is also considered indecent by many Africans. The main difference is that present day bikutsi is still often performed by female artists who use it as a means of self-expression in a traditionally male-dominated society. Thus a singer like K-Tino, self-styled femme du peuple (woman of the people) sees herself as having an important part to play in the emancipation and liberation of the women of Cameroon. Among the current crop of artists are Patou Bass and Ovasho Bens, the promoter of a dance and philosophy called “zig zag”. His first album is composed not only of Cameroonian traditional rhythms but also West Indian zouk and Jamaican-style reggae. Bikutsi has influenced Western musicians such as Paul Simon on his 1990 album The Rhythm of the Saints.

Bongo Flava

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Etymology#

The name “Bongo” in Bongo Flava comes from Kiswahili usually meaning brains, intelligence, cleverness. Bongo is the augmentative form of Ubongo, a Swahili word for Brain. Flava is a Swahili term for Flavour. In 1981, musician Remmy Ongala joined a band called Orchestra Super Matimila. Each band had a unique mtindo (style/fashion) and Ongala’s band Matimila named their mtindo “Bongo Beat”. Ongala later became the most famous musician ever for Tanzania, reaching global fame working with English singer Peter Gabriel.

Boomba music

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Vegatone#

Vegatone, Riftsyde flava or Naxvegas muzik is a genre of hip hop/Afro Dancehall music that originated from the town of Nakuru or colloquially Naks/NaxVegas as many youths call it. The music is a blend of indigenous kapuka mixed with a reggae baseline. It is characterized by very flashy Musicians who mainly rap and sing about their sexual escapades and the number of women that they keep, but cipher their language to avoid being explicit. Vegatone has evolved in recent times. Artists in this genre include award-winning artist Teferah who has numerous hits having worked with Nyanda from Brick and Lace on the song “Put It On Me” produced in Romania by Tommo records, and getting signed to an American music label Mpact Muzik in 2017. Teferah is seen as a break-through artist in this genre. Other Vegatone artists are Rhonda Bwoy, Skymer, Juss Nera, Hush BK, Avril, Vivian, K-FRESH, Igiza, Obako, Mavo, 77 and many more. Nakuru is credit for creating the viral sounds of Gengetone which uses the slang used in Nakuru and most Gengetone producers are from Nakuru Sadafa, Mavo on the beat, Duboiz, Samba on the beat, Andah water, Magix Enga and other creatives that fuse Vegatone arrangements. Vegatone is a common sound especially on Kenyan and local nakuru radios highly popularized by Radio presenter Caleb Koyo.

Bubu music

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Chazezesa Challengers

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Music style#

The group successfully mixed elements of sungura, jazz, South African mbaqanga and traditional sounds, creating an appealing and popular blend. The Chazezesa Challengers produced a string of hit albums in the mid-to-late 1990s; their debut, Rudo Tsika Nemagariro, sold more than 20,000 copies, while Mutunhu Unemago topped 30,000. Some of their top songs include Anodyiwa Haature, Kaserura Ndizvo, Smoko, Ndiridze Mhere, Ukarambwa Usacheme, and Vaforomani. System Tazvida is known for stressing that he liked better playing for rural crowds who he said liked and appreciated his music by singing along and dancing to it spiritedly when he did live shows. The Challengers were known for their humorous love lyrics and satirical subjects. The band also toured in Mozambique, where they were popular.

Chimurenga music

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Origin#

The name “Chimurange music” is derived from the Shona-language word chimurenga, meaning “liberation”, which was commonly used during the 1964–1979 Rhodesian Bush War. The genre was created by the musician and political dissident Thomas Mapfumo.

Style#

An instrument commonly used in chimurenga music is the mbira, a type of “thumb piano” with a wooden body and metal tines that are plucked to produce a sound. Contemporary chimurenga incorporates electric instruments such as bass and electric guitars. It includes percussive elements like hosho shakers and various drums. The music typically builds melodies on top of folk tunes, with a danceable, fast-paced beat. The vocals tend to be emotional and can involve a call-and-response element.

Colá

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As a genre music#

As a music genre, colá is characterized by having an andante tempo, a 6/8 or 3/4 measure and traditionally it is just melodic, i.e., it is just sung, it has no polyphonic accompaniment. In its traditional form, it is structured like a chain of (songs or recitals). Today, cola has been composed in another form by recent composers.

As a dance#

As a dance, colá is traditionally celebrated in a street parade.

Coladeira

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Genre#

As a music genre the coladeira is characterized by having a variable tempo, from allegro to andante, a 2-beat bar, and in its most traditional form by having an harmonic structure based in a cycle of fifths, while the lyrics structure is organized in strophes that alternate with a refrain. The coladeira is almost always monotonic, i.e. composed in just one tonality. Compositions that use more than a tonality are rare and generally they are cases of passing from a minor to major tonality or vice versa.

Congolese rumba

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Tempo and instrumental composition#

The Congolese rumba is characterized by a slow-to-moderate tempo and syncopated arrangement of drums and percussion, typically following a time signature. The genre’s instrumentation has evolved over time. Initially, local tunes were concocted employing instruments such as the likembe, a bottle struck with a metal rod, and a small, skin-covered frame drum called patenge. By the mid-to-late 1950s, the instrumentation diversified further with “orchestres”, or big bands, becoming the standard and incorporating upright basses, trumpets, saxophones, and more elaborate percussion setups. The contemporary Congolese rumba instrumental makeup primarily includes guitars, mandolins, banjos, drums, saxophones, clarinets, trumpets, maracas, pianos, shakers, double bells (ekonga), likembe, accordion, and racketts.

Coupé-décalé

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Etymology#

Coupé-décalé derives its name from Nouchi. According to journalist Siddhartha Mitter, coupé means “to cheat” while décalé means “to run away”. Together, the phrase expressed a rebellious mindset linked to “beating the system” and escaping social or economic hardships, especially those associated with Western or colonial systems, in a way similar to the idea of “The Man” in American counterculture. Other interpretations of the genre’s name have been suggested as well. In Tradition et modernité dans la musique de l’Afrique occidentale, musicologist Olivier Rivera Micalef argued that DJ Jacob was the first person to use the words coupé (“cut”) and décalé (“shift”) to describe particular dance movements performed by the Jet Set collective. Even though DJ Jacob introduced the terms, Douk Saga is generally considered the central figure who organized, expanded, and brought coupé-décalé to international audiences.

Desert blues

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Historical background#

The Tuareg people live in a region of North and West Africa that covers large portions of the Sahara across the modern-day national boundaries of Mali, Algeria, Niger, Libya, and Chad, and to a lesser extent, reaching into Burkina Faso and Nigeria. They had been nomadic pastoralists involved in trans-Saharan trade for many hundreds of years. At the turn of the 20th century, the Tuareg were subjected to French colonial rule, after a lengthy resistance movement and defeated rebellion. With the departure of colonial powers in the 1950s and 1960s, the lands inhabited by the Tuareg population were split primarily between the six new countries of Mali, Algeria, Niger, Libya, Burkina Faso and Chad, making them ethnic minorities across the region. For the next few decades, natural resources diminished due to increasing desertification and the Tuareg minorities have since been involved in a series of conflicts and rebellions, creating hardship for the survival of Tuareg people and their culture. In 1973, a major drought forced many of the Tamasheq-speaking people throughout the deserts to reconsider their traditional way of life as nomadic herders. Many took refuge in urban centers across the region, but with many lacking formal education, the Tamasheq were largely unemployed. The term ishumar began to be used describing young Tamasheq. A unique culture began to arise among many of the economically and politically marginalized youths, sometimes rebellious or revolutionary in nature, reasserting a cultural pride. Many young men, including future members of Tinariwen, took employment in a Tamasheq military unit being assembled by Libyan military leader Muammar al-Gaddafi. Besides receiving military training and weapons in the Gaddafi-sponsored camps, many of the young Tamasheq men were also exposed to revolutionary ideas, pan-Africanism, and popular music. In the decades to follow, the Tamasheq were involved in extended episodes of violence and rebellion against the various governments in the region, both as victim and perpetrator. The stories of socio-political unrest have been relayed through music, contributing to and partially shaping the Tamasheq people’s culture and ideals.

Dhaanto

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History#

According to local tradition, Dhaanto is believed to have been invented by the nomadic Ogaden clan. The origins of the dance could be traced back to Somali Region of Ethiopia. It was revived in the late 19th century by the Dervish Movement, and was used to raise the ‘spirits’ of soldiers and was often sung on horseback. Dhaanto became popular among the Somalis in Ethiopia and quickly spread to other Somali territories in the Horn of Africa. In the Ogaden region, this dance is very popular and you will annually see ethnic Somalis perform different versions of this dance at the Nations, Nationalities and Peoples’ Day in Jigjiga. Additionally, the genre is also employed in Islamic poetry. References

East African urban music

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Description and history#

The three countries involved in this genre share a common colonial history and close cultural and linguistic relationships. Especially since the 1960s, popular musicians have shared their talents across the borders of the three nations and helped move the music of the area from traditional to benga/rumba and now Afro-urban music. Musicians of the early 1990s, including Tedd Josiah (Kenya), P-Funk (Tanzania) and Steve Jean (Uganda), began to combine western influences with the area’s more traditional popular music. Local radio stations were at first reluctant to experiment with this new music, until privately operated FM stations began to appear and needed new material to establish a market niche. By 2000 urban music groups like X-plastaz (Tanzania), 237 Street Cypher (Kenya), and Kalamashaka (Kenya) had developed local followings and were beginning to tour abroad. Production houses specializing in the genre—such as Ogopa Djs, Swahili Entertainment Africa, Samawati, HipHop kila pahali, Home Boyz and Bongo Records—have emerged. Problems with financing and technical infrastructure have hampered development, and the industry generally lacks executives well-versed in the music business. Some groups like Ukoo Flani Mau Mau, a slum-based hip hop organization with members from Kenya and Tanzania founded by the group Kalamashaka, have attempted to further development of industry with the help of Foundation UpToYouToo. In 2004 the Kilio Cha Haki, A Cry for Justice (by Nairobi Yetu) compilation appeared, featuring Rha Goddess, a performing artist and socio-political activist based in New York. Nairobi Yetu is a collaboration of 38-strong collective from Nairobi, among them G.rongi and Kalamashaka. Swahili Entertainment Inc. and Nomadic Wax Records combined in late 2004 to start the distribution and publishing of East African urban music. Other companies like Bab Kubwa and Project 254 Records are also working to develop and expand the market for this music. This upshot of this music can be well seen in the documentary HIP HOP Colony.

Ethio-jazz

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Nerses Nalbandian#

The origin of Ethio-jazz can be traced to the 1950s with Nerses Nalbandian, a musician of Armenian descent whose family (including his uncle Kevork Nalbandian, composer of Ethiopia, Be Happy) migrated to Ethiopia in 1915. Nalbandian became the leader of Ethiopia’s National Opera after his uncle, Kervok Nalbandian, retired. When Emperor Haile Selassie commissioned Nalbandian to compose music for the Ethiopian National Theatre, he created a fusion of traditional Ethiopian music and Western instrumentation. This was considered the basis of the evolution of Ethio-jazz music.

Ethiopian chant

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Etymology#

Zema means a pleasing sound, a song or a melody in Geʽez, the liturgical language of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church.

History#

Saint Yared has been credited with the invention of the musical tradition of Ethiopian liturgical chants. Yared, who lived in the sixth century, represents the first known case of indigenous Ethiopian musical notation and religious music. According to Ethiopian Christian tradition St. Yared was divinely inspired to create three forms of chanting. The story of his inspiration follows St. Yared watched a small insect fall from a tree and then climb to a greater height up the tree than the insect had been at before, leading St. Yared to theorize a human could accomplish much more. According to tradition, from that moment onward St. Yared began to take inspiration from the beauty of nature and the singing of birds to create his chants. Thus it is said that “even the sounds of animals and the songs of the birds, fall under one of these modes of St. Yared. Each of these chants is associated with an aspect of the Holy Trinity. The geeze is associated with the Father, the ararai with the Holy Spirit, and the ezil with the Son. The geeze are the most often used chants and are frequently performed with the ararai on non-feast days. The Ezel chants which are often much slower and are performed on holidays, at vigils, funerals, and Good Friday. The Synaxarium of the Ethiopian Church attests that Ethiopian liturgical chants are faithful to Yared and divine in nature. Most of the Ethiopian Highlands had been Miaphysite Christian since the fourth century. Ancient chanted liturgy with congregation participating with clapping, ululation and rhythmic movements has been retained from that era. Ethiopian liturgical chants are based on both written and oral sources, but the isolation of Ethiopia and the lack of source material make it difficult to reconstruct the exact history of Ethiopian church music. The musical notation (melekket) used for the chants, is not a typical notational system since it does not represent pitch or melody. Rather, it is as a mnemonic. Most studies conclude that there has been impressive consistency since the 1500s. It is likely that Ethiopian liturgical chants have undergone an evolution similar to that of European liturgical chants. It can be assumed that the notations have become more and more complex as time has passed. Regional varieties may have become standardized over time, and more symbols and segments of music have become available for composers. Any form of Ethiopian gospel music was not recorded until the 1950s when priest Mere Geta Lisanework assisted the Ethiopian Radio in recording.

Ewe music

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Characteristics#

Jones describes two “rules” (p. 24 and p. 17, capitalization his): # The Unit of Time Rule or the Rule of Twos and Threes: “African Ewe phrases are built up of the numbers 2 or 3, or their multiples: or of a combination of 2 and 3 or of the multiples of this combination. Thus a phrase of 10 will be (2 + 3) + (2 + 3) or (2 + 2 + 2) + 4. # The Rule of Repeats: “The repeats within an African Ewe song are an integral part of it.” If a song is formally “A + A + B + B + B” one cannot leave out, say, one of the B sections. He also lists the following “Features of African Ewe Music” (p. 49): # “Songs appear to be in free rhythm but most of them have a fixed time-background. # The rule of 2 and 3 in the metrical build of songs. # Nearly all rhythms which are used in combination are made from simple aggregates of a basic time-unit. A quaver is always a quaver. # The claps or other time-background impart no accent what-ever to the song. # African Ewe melodies are additive: their time-background is divisive. # The principle of cross-rhythms. # The rests within and at the end of a song before repeats are an integral part of it. # Repeats are an integral part of the song: they result in many variations of the call and response form (see summary). # The call and response type of song is usual in Africa sic . # African Ewe melodies are diatonic: the major exception being the sequence dominant-sharpened subdominant-dominant. # Short triplets are occasionally used. # The teleological trend: many African Ewe songs lean towards the ends of the lines: it is at the ends where they are likely to coincide with their time-background. # Absence of the fermata.”

Famo

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Characteristics#

As a very popular form of music in Lesotho, famo consists of male or female singing and ululations. Instrumental support comes from an accordion, a drum and a bass. Songs often refer to urban life, and female singers can use their singing to challenge their male counterparts.

History#

The introduction of Basotho migrant labour from Lesotho into South African mines in the 1920s led to the development of famo. It originated in the setolotolo bow songs that the menfolk would sing as they walked along, alternating between the bow to fill in the chorus and the voice as the lead part. With the introduction of European instruments, the korosetina (concertina) and koriana (accordion) were adopted. The concertina was initially favoured as it could be played whilst singing and was easily carried but the accordion was eventually favoured for its bigger sound which was better for dancing. The music and singing combination of famo was performed in the shebeens where the workers drank and chatted and also down in the mines whilst they toiled. The name famo came from the phrase ho re famo, to flare the nostrils or to throw up one’s garments. The dancing girls who had followed the men to South Africa and entertained them in the shebeens perfected a dance with their short skirts that allowed them to artfully flick up the skirt, exposing their naked rear. The performers were careful not to wear underwear. In 1963 reforms to South African regulations meant the repatriation of thousands of women and famo performers and shebeen danceers were forced back to Lesotho. This encouraged the creation of ensembles that were rounded out by a drummer. The moropa drum they used was a 20-litre tar can topped by a piece of inner tube as the drumhead, with manyenenyene, metal bottle tops or jangles, to provide a jingling alternative to the thump of the drum. The drumsticks themselves were made from slices of tire. Since the 1920s music companies had been looking for African music they could commercialise. What turned the music of the shebeens into a national music for the Basotho was the rise of major recording personalities amongst the famo ensembles.

Funaná

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Characteristics#

As a music genre, the funaná is characterized by having a variable tempo, from vivace to andante, and a 2-beat rhythm. The funaná is intimately associated to the accordion, more precisely to the diatonic accordion, commonly known as gaita in Cape Verde. This influences a lot of musical aspects that characterize the funaná, such as the fact that, in its most traditional form, the funaná uses only diatonic scales, and not chromatic ones. The structure of a funaná composition is not very different from the structure of other musical genres in Cape Verde, i.e., basically the music is structured through a set of main strophes that alternate with a refrain. The main difference is that between the different strophes and the refrain there is a solo played on the accordion. The music is generally monotonic. The accompaniment is made with the left hand on the accordion, providing a bass and the chords. The rhythmic model is played on the ferrinho. The melodic line of the funaná varies a lot through the composition, with a lot of series of ascending and descending notes. The funaná singers occasionally use the sforzando technique in certain notes, specially if they are long (imitation of the accordion?). The lyrics of the funaná generally talk about everyday situations, mentioning the sorrows and the happiness of quotidian life, but they also talk about social criticism, reflections about life and idyllic situations. Recent composers however have expanded the themes. Another characteristic of funaná is that the lyrics are not made in a direct way, but frequently use figures of speech, proverbs and popular sayings. Example: That requires a good knowledge of popular culture and language, and that’s why recent compositions, compositions from younger authors or compositions from authors with little contact with popular culture do not always use this poetry technique. Concerning instrumentation, in its most traditional form, the funaná only uses the accordion and the ferrinho. With the stylization and electrification other instruments are used: the rhythm provided by the ferrinho is made on a drum set together with other percussion instruments (a shaker or a cabasa); the bass/accompaniment played on the accordion is replaced by a bass guitar and an electric guitar; the melody played on the accordion is replaced by a synthesizer. By the end of the 90’s, there is a certain revival where the unplugged (acoustic) performances are sought after, in which electronic instruments are relegated in favor to authentic accordions and ferrinhos.

Gambian hip-hop

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Griot#

Like many other West African countries, the Gambia has a history of griot storytelling going back eight centuries. Griot is widely considered to be a precursor to rapping, and was a kind of rhythmic, rhyming storytelling accompanied by drums and sparse instrumentation.

Origins of modern hip-hop#

The modern hip-hop scene in the Gambia started in the late 1990s after the Gambia opened its National Television, Gambia Radio & Television Services (GRTS) in 1995. The first Gambian rap group was Black Nature, founded in 1995. Other early groups were “Dancehall Masters”, “Masla Bi”, “Da Fugitivz”, “Born Africans” and many others. Now there are various award ceremonies held to promote Gambian artists in the music industry. In 2007, Black Lynx and One Tribe Sound, the best known hip hop movements and promoters in the country, joined forces as the Afric Alliance, and came up with the open mic show where rappers were invited to perform.

Genge

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Origins and characteristics#

As Kenyan urban music became more popular, Kenyan artists and music fans were missing a common name for their music, and many names were suggested. Among them were Boomba music, kapuka, and gemba. Around this time, Kenyan rapper Nonini started a campaign to popularize the term “genge” to refer to Kenyan urban music and also specifically to music by artists on Calif Records. Calif-style genge was founded by Clement “Clemo” Rapudo of Calif Records and originated in California Estate, Nairobi. It was popularized by rappers Nonini, with his song Manzi wa Nairobi, and Jua Cali, with the songs Ngeli ya Genge, Nipe Asali, and Ruka. Due to a disagreement on the definition of Kenyan urban music, the name genge is now more commonly used to describe music from Calif Records. However, genge is easily identified by its rapping style and conversational rhythm format that make a song sound like a casual discussion in Sheng. The most notable genge artists are Nonini, P-Unit, Jua Cali, Influx Swagga, Flexx, Jimw@t, Rat-a-Tat, Alpha Msanii, Lady S (deceased), Kleptomaniax, and Pili Pili, among others. Nonini was continuously the most popular artist on Calif Records between the years 2002 and 2004; Nonini is the self-titled Godfather of Genge. Genge has given rise to other subgenres, such as the Ghipuka, popularized by Kenrazy and Gengetone. The main line has also developed, for instance with America-based producer Keggah adapting genge into a form that has proved popular among Kenyans. In June 2018, an Umoja-based boy band called Ethic Entertainment came out with their debut song “Lamba Lolo,” garnering over 4 million views on YouTube. Other boy bands like Boondocks Gang, Ochungulo Family, Sailors Gang, Wakali Wao, Angry Panda, Wakadinali, Vintage Clan, and Rico Gang produced songs that created the subgenre Gengetone. Genge songs generally talk about struggles in the ghetto, with most songs taking on a storytelling format where the main singer is reliving or sharing an event they witnessed with their friends and the lesson the event has taught them. These events often, but not always, revolve around sex, drugs, women, or interactions with people in positions of power over them. Some of the most popular genge tracks include:

Gnawa music

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Etymology#

The name Gnawa originated in the indigenous languages of North Africa and the Sahara Desert. According to the grammatical principles of Berber, the term appears as is agnaw in the singular and ignawen in the plura, meaning “black person.” In the Sanhaja language, the term also derives from the root ‘gnw’, meaning “black”. The term Gnawa is transcribed as the words “Knawi” or “Jnawi”, linking its origin to the name Guinea and the historical regions of West Africa. In Berber ‘akal niguinamen’ (singular - ‘aguinaw’) means the ’land of the black men’, historically associated with the Ghana Empire.

Gqom

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Lexicology and morphology#

The word gqom derives from an onomatopoeic combination of click consonants in the Zulu language (isiZulu) which could be interpreted as a “hitting drum”, “ricochet” or “bang”. Isgubhu and igqom are IsiZulu words to describe a drum sound or beat emanating from speakers, that became synonymous with Durban kwaito. The term “three-step” (3 step) was coined in the mid-2010s by gqom record producers Sbucardo and Citizen Boy to describe gqom music not only as a name, moreover attributed to a specific beat structure or pattern of gqom music preceding developing into a distinct subgenre of gqom.

Highlife

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

The following arpeggiated highlife guitar part is modeled after an Afro-Cuban guajeo. The pattern of attack-points is nearly identical to the 3-2 clave motif guajeo as shown below. The bell pattern known in Cuba as clave is indigenous to Ghana, and is used in highlife. The origins of Highlife stem from colonialism and trading in West Africa through regional styles of music.

Palm wine music#

Palm-wine music, also known as maringa in Sierra Leone, was one style that originated on coastal locations when local musicians began using portable instruments brought by traders and fused it with local string and percussion instruments. It was usually played in a syncopated 4/4 metre. This music was played in low class palm-wine bars at ports where sailors, dock workers, and working class locals would drink and listen to the music. Palm-wine music eventually worked its way inland and a more Africanized version came containing 12/8 polyrhythms; this subgenre would be known as the “Native Blues”. This style would gain popularity up until World War II when production of the records was stopped.

Hipco

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

Rap and pop music are also performed in indigenous languages across the country, with a generation of artists creating their own style of uniquely Liberian rap music called Hipco (or “‘Co”). Hipco is usually performed in Liberian English or the local vernacular, using the style of communication with which Liberians speak and relate to each other. Hipco evolved in the 1980s and has always had a social and political bent. In the 1990s, it continued to develop through multiple civil conflicts, and today stands as a definitive mark of Liberian culture. Hipco music became popular in 2000. As of 2017, it was the popular music genre of Liberia, “serving as the medium through which rappers speak against societal ills, including injustice and corruption.” The “‘co” in the genre is short of the Liberian dialect Kolokwa, which according to the Washington Post, “the Liberian underclass has been improvising since the early 19th century, blending the English brought by 19,000 ex-slaves with words from about 15 native tongues to attain a soft-sounding patois. Kolokwa is 99 percent an oral language — as yet, there is not a single full book in the dialect — and it is all but incomprehensible to the American ear. In Liberia, the cultural elite has long shunned it as lowbrow. Which means that when Hipco artists inject a few choice snatches of Kolokwa into otherwise English lyrics, their words have political zing.” According to the Washington Post, “HipCo is to Liberia as jazz is to the United States.” In 2017, Liberian historian C. Patrick Burrows stated “we’re on the verge of a renaissance. HipCo is at the leading edge of it.”

Hiplife

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

Reginald Osei, known in music circles as Reggie Rockstone, is touted by some as the originator of hiplife; others disagree. Nonetheless, the origins of Ghanaian hip hop go back to the 1980s, with performers such as K.K. Kabobo and Gyedu Blay Ambolley. As early as 1973, Ambolley released his first record, “Simigwado” – a semi-rap in Fante-style highlife – to a small audience, which showed him performing highlife variations with fast-spoken, poetic lyrics. Ambolley would go on to be hailed the father of rap, not only in Ghana but in the world. Over time, Ghanaians became influenced by American hip hop, reggae, dance hall. There was an emerging underground hip hop collective in the capital Accra. Hiplife’s history dates back to the early 1990s. Jeff Tennyson Quaye, better known around the world as Jay Q, one of the pioneers of hiplife (in the mid-1990s), is considered the backbone of Ghana music as a whole; in recognition of his own variation and introduction of Jama/kpanlogo to hiplife, he has been called the King of Jama. Reginald “Reggie Rockstone” Ossei also began to craft this art form with producers Mike Cooke, Rab Bakari, Zapp Mallet and Coal house. Chief G and the Tribe was one of the first rap groups in Ghana consisting of Chief G (now known as Jay Ghartey), Abeeku and Kwaku T performing rap as far back as 1989. After they broke up before Reggie’s foray into what is now termed hiplife, Talking Drums, consisting of Kwaku-T and Bayku, experimented with choruses and hooks in local languages. In Twi, Reggie would flow over hip-hop beats, a style that had been used previously in Mahoney P’s debut album Kofi Babone. In that same era, the group Native Funk Lords (NFL) came out with Pidgin rap; the originators of the genre were from the Kay’s Frequency camp: Tinniequaye, Cil, Jake & Eddy Blay. This group also took inspiration from bands such as Osibisa and Ghanaba of Ghana. Rapper and producer Cavell was also part of the original NFL collective and is now known to many as The Mantis. Reggie Rockstone has been described as the “Godfather of Hiplife” since he spawned a new music genre in the country. After his debut album Makaa Maka, with the hit single “Choo boi”, several hiplife acts followed. Although in several radio interviews in 2004, Reggie Rockstone stated that he does not perform hiplife, this could be mainly attributed to the fact that he now prefers to rap in English. A new era was born in late 1998 when a young producer known as Hammer of The Last Two emerged with original beats plus precision rap artistes. Hammer, born Edward Nana Poku Osei, managed to fuse hip-hop grooves with local tempo and sweet melody, which caught the attention of both the elite and masses instantly. Known for his heavy drums and lead trumpets, Hammer had an originality that elevated hiplife to greater heights, inspiring and influencing a whole generation of producers including Richie, Ball J, Kill Beats, Jayso, EL, and others. In addition, some of the biggest artistes in hiplife today were in Hammer of The Last Two’s line-up, among them Kwaw Kesse, Ayigbe Edem, odeshi, Obrafour, Tinny, Sarkodie, Koo Wiase. Other Ghanaian rappers – Lord Kenya, Obour, V.I.P, The Native Funk Lords (rapping mainly in Pidgin English), Castro and MzBel – continued the trend and hiplife is now one of the most popular forms of music in West Africa. The most popular hiplife musicians are Tic Tac, Sarkodie, Vision in Progress (VIP), Asem, Obrafour, Buk Bak, Castro and Samini, who won a MOBO award for his contribution to hiplife in 2006. Since the rise of these popular musicians, hiplife has grown in popularity abroad, through such artists such as Kwaw Kesse, Koo Wiase, D-Black, Richie, ASEM, Sarkodie, Yaa pono. The first recorded rap beef in the history of Ghana was birthed in the HipLife era when Ex doe released his controversial hit single “Maba”, which was responded to by chicago with “wo bɛ kɔ”. These turn of events ended up heightening tensions amongst the two rappers. Beyond that, Ex doe’s maba also ended up rubbing the godfather of hiplife Reggie Rockstone the wrong way with a line in his flow that appeared to take shots at his credibility being the oseikrom president. In 2009, Ghanaian filmmaker Mantse Aryeequaye released a documentary entitled Rhythm Rising that focused on the political history of the hiplife movement in Ghana, as well as hip-hop music amidst various political climates in the nation. In his film, Aryeequaye also examines many famed Ghanaian artists, among whom are Kwaw Kese, Kwaku Tutu and Obrafour, through their experiences within the hiplife or hip-hop movement. The film explores the culture of hiplife against the backdrop of Ghana’s political environment. Hiplife in Ghana is sticking to a new trend of rhythm and this is mainly being influenced by music engineers such as Kill Beatz, Dj Dijoe, Pie-Sie, Jay So looney, Richie, Kaywa and Hammer of The Last Two. There is some confusion about the classification of hip pop made in Ghana and Hiplife, but overall they bear the same qualities and share common rhythms.

Hiragasy

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Origins and history#

The tradition in its contemporary form began in the late 18th century when Merina prince Andrianampoinimerina first used musicians to draw a crowd for his political speeches (kabary); these troupes became independent, and began to incorporate political commentary and critique in their performances. The audience plays an active role at hiragasy events, expressing their satisfaction with the talent of the troupe members and the message they proclaim through applause, cheers or sounds of disapproval. Hiragasy troupes were used during the French colonial administration to communicate decrees and other information to the rural population in the Highlands, and as such troupe members were exempt from the forced labor requirements imposed on all other Malagasy. After independence from France in 1960, the hiragasy troupe was held up as an icon of traditional Malagasy culture, and began to find greater popularity along the coasts, although performances remain largely concentrated in the Highlands. Aspiring politicians routinely hire hiragasy troupes to attract a crowd for their political speeches while campaigning. While most troupes remain apolitical, some have opted to throw their support behind particular candidates to spectacular effect, as when former hiragasy member-cum-popstar Rossy authored his 1995 song “Lera.” The song was critical of the Zafy regime and was picked up by hiragasy troupes, who performed it across the island; the popularity of this song played a key role in mobilizing popular support for Zafy’s impeachment. The most famous troupe is Ramilison Fenoarivo, Rossy’s former troupe and staunch supporter of ex-President Didier Ratsiraka.

Igbo Christian music

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

The History of Igbo Christian music can be traced to the 19th century when Christian missionaries would translate Christian hymnals into the Igbo language. Some Igbo converts also composed their hymns in Igbo, using local tunes and rhythms.

Igbo highlife

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Igbo highlife in the 21st century#

From 2004 onwards, singers like Flavour N’abania, J. Martins, Bracket and Wizboyy saw even more success and acclaim for their renascent diverse styles, which, unlike earlier highlife, incorporate a wide range of neoteric influences outside of the West African music scene. One typical example was N’abania’s Uplifted album released through Obaino Music/2nite Entertainment in 2010. The album marked a change in musical direction compared to his debut effort as it exhibited a more urban feel encompassing a mixture of hip hop, R&B, techno, reggae, dancehall, and calypso. Uplifted attained commercial success worldwide. In Africa, N’abania remained in high demand at concerts and on other social events. With the genre’s rise in mainstream appeal, many emerging MCs particularly from around the South East and other neighbouring areas began integrating local highlife sounds. Acts such as Mr Raw (formerly Dat N.I.G.G.A. Raw), Slow Dogg, MC Loph and 2Shotz helped establish a much stronger link between indigenous rap, and the new highlife by providing verses to several hit songs and would often hire Igbo vocalists to sing the choruses of their own songs. During 2011, J Martins made headlines around the continent and beyond when he collaborated with Cabo Snoop from Angola and Fally Ipupa from the Democratic Republic of Congo. The songs titled “Good Tym” and “Kele Papa” drew plenty of attention that year, and would later go on to become fan favorites. By 2012, J Martins had evolved into one of the most recognized West African, internationally known music stars. His soukous-tinged approach to record production further gained him additional fan following and respect. In March 2014, Phyno’s introductory album No Guts No Glory was released. Featuring two high-profile appearances by N’abania contributing vocals to tracks “Multiply” and “Authe (Authentic)”. The album has received generally positive reviews since its release. It earned Phyno a City People Entertainment Award nomination for Best Rap Album.

Igbo music

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

When examining the impact that music has on the culture of the Igbo people, one would have to look no further than the earliest accounts of the vast history of the Igbo in Nigeria. Igbo people are speculated to be descendants of the people of the Nok culture that a large area of central Nigeria from 1500 BC to 200 AD. The Nok civilization is very popular because of the vast amount of colorful artifacts that they left behind, which include an array of musical instruments some of which on surface examination are somewhat similar to those found in Igbo Ukwu. It is not known when the beginnings or first vestiges of Igbo music sprung up. However, from the range of traditional lullabies, rhythmic proverbs and poems, work songs and general use of music in day-to-day life, music has influenced.

Igbo rap

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Ikwokirikwo

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

After the Biafran war there was a hunger amongst the Igbo people to move on from the war. Ikwokirikwo came from this desire in the early 70s. Ikwokirikwo was much different from the somber sound of the Igbo highlife music which dominated the era before and presided during the war. The uptempo beat was one which needed the listener to get up and dance. Though Ikwokirikwo is heavily influenced by the ogene music, this style of music also incorporates other Igbo rhythms into the guitar chords. like many other African musical styles of its era It immediately later incorporated other musical styles from other parts of Africa like Benga music, Soukous, Makossa.

Isicathamiya

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Origin: traditional music, culture and spirituality#

Although the style exponentially emerged in the 20th century, specifically in the 1920s and 1930s, many academics argue it can be traced back to the end of the 19th century. They believe the roots of isicathamiya are found in the American minstrels and ragtime US vaudeville troupes that toured South Africa extensively in 1860. Isicathamiya would have merged from a combination of minstrel inspired songs and Zulu traditional music. Culturally and traditionally, isicathamiya is influenced by Zulu indigenous beliefs such as: belief in communalism which is expressed in the Zulu dictum, “umuntu, ngumuntu, ngabantu”, competition, strength and power associated with animals, reverence of the fireplace as a resource for food and warmth and, dreams for communicating with ancestors. The expression “umuntu, ngumuntu, ngabantu” which means “a person is a person because of other people”, dominates Zulu social organization and is used as a tool to strengthen social harmony. In the Zulu community, competition is highly valued, especially with music, as it is seen as a social issue which is subject to competition. It is also perceived as a public platform in which people can establish a concept of identity in a community. Isicathamiya performers improve their image by winning competitions. In Zulu folklore, bulls are a common symbol of power and masculinity. Other wild animals such as snakes, crocodiles, tigers and lions are expressions of power relations and assertion of power in competitive isicathamiya competitions. Early isicathamiya groups were named after animals such as Empangeni Home Tigers and Brave Lion Singers. The fireplace is used metaphorically for the “cooking of songs” in isicathamiya stage performances. Emphasis is placed on the social organization based on the Zulu indigenous residence which took form in a circular bee-hive grass hut and at the center the head of surrounded by wives and children. The same formation takes places when isicathamiya songs were created with the leader in the center of the group. Dreams were an essential part of communicating with ancestors and formed part of a deeply rooted Zulu religious process. Some isicathamiya musicians claim some of their songs were created in the spiritual realm given to them by ancestors. Joseph Shabalala of Ladysmith Black Mambazo claimed he was inspired by dreams whereby, for six months in the 1960s, he was visited by voices. These were spiritual elders who were singing in the isicathamiya style. He experienced a final examination where each of the twenty-four elders asked him a musical question and Shabalala achieved a perfect score.

Ivorian hip-hop

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

90s popularity#

Hip hop became a mainstream part of Ivorian music beginning in about 1998. Some time later, the scene gained more publicity with the rise of a publicly feuding pair of crew leaders, Stezo of the Flotte Imperiale and Almighty of the Ministère Authentik. There is a kind of gangsta rap-influenced Ivorian hip hop called rap dogba, inspired by Angelo & les Dogbas.

“Foreigness” and growth#

Overall, hip hop is still perceived in Ivory Coast as a foreign type of music and artists do not enjoy the popularity of their zouglou or Coupé-Décalé counterparts. It is considered a marginal movement with a specific following because most Ivorians did not find material or situations to relate to or connect with in Ivorian hip-hop. However, since 2006 and the rise of a new school of Ivorian rap crews such as the very popular Garba 50 (whose name is inspired by a very cheap and popular Ivorian dish eaten by the common people), hip hop is enjoying a newfound following among the Ivorian population. By blending Nouchi, the particular and very evocative Ivorian vernacular and street language, with hip hop beats and rhyming style, groups like Garba 50, Sans Soi, and Rage Man (among others) have managed to revitalize the movement and make it more accessible to Ivorians.

Jaiva

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Influences and particularity#

While closely associated with mbaqanga, township jive more broadly incorporates influences from mariba and kwaito, and is synonymous with none of these. To the extent that marabi influences TJ, it may be somewhat sanitised as TJ broke into the international commercial arena.

Emergence in world music circles#

The Boyoyo Boys received additional press coverage when Malcolm McLaren allegedly plagiarised their song “Puleng” and released it as the hit “Double Dutch”, capitalising on the emergence of breakdance and hip-hop. Additional momentum for world beat attention to South African music developed as a result of international attention to the demise of apartheid and Nelson Mandela’s 70th birthday concert in Wembley Stadium, London in 1988.

Jit

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Jùjú music

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Instrumentation#

When jùjú music was first developing, groups often formed as trios. This included a bandleader who sang and played the banjo, a tambourine player, and a sèkèrè (gourd rattle) player. The style used at Christian wake keeping ceremonies was especially important. It was often characterized as having free musical expression unhampered by the strictness of keeping to a rigid four-part organization. The area boys preferred attending wake keeping ceremonies over more formal church services, which made them conversant with several hymn-tune-derived church melodies set to lyrics in Yoruba and with the concomitant melodic progressions and framework of the diatonic scale. One example of how Church melodies and melodic progressions influenced Juju is through Tunde King’s Yisa Imouru. “The elements that can be traced directly to the church hymn include the seven tone diatonic scale, the sequential treatment of the first line of the text, the parallel thirds especially at the cadence point, the free combination of voices which follows the usual form of hymn-tune singing at wakes, and the relatively free treatment of the speech tone patterns of the yoruba text. Along with church hymns, asiko music is found in the lyrical style of Tunde King. Asiko dance music is the predecessor of Juju. Abdulrafiu Tunde King was born and grew up during the height of the asiko dance music craze in the 1920s. Tunde King attended gatherings of area boys at Till Nelson’s motor-mechanic workshop to drink, make music, and, in general, have fun. Tunde King often performed musical entertainment at the gatherings, improvising on esa texts associated with asiko dance music or on such simple folksongs as Orin Kurumo, and thereby fashioning a framework for his social commentary in the Yoruba language

Kadongo Kamu

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

Kadongo Kamu emerged from traditional Baganda music and oral storytelling practices, drawing influences from folk songs and drumming styles such as Bakisimba. Although its roots are linked to earlier musical traditions, the genre gained prominence in the mid 20th century particulary from the 1950s and 1960s when the acoustic guitars became more accessible and widely adopted in East Africa. Perhaps the first well-known artist of the genre was Fred Masagazi in the 60’s. Masagazi is considered by many to be the father of kadongo kamu. His brand of educative singing won him many fans and he was one of the few musicians who was involved with Uganda’s independence in 1962. Elly Wamala was another of the founders. Elly Wamala is credited with the invention of this genre but abandoned it because it was constantly and easily played informally by people he considered uneducated. It is common to find kadongo kamu artists staged on the streets of Kampala (Uganda’s Capital City) entertaining a micro concert for a small fee usually raised by the crowd. The grandfather of this genre though is widely regarded to be Christopher Ssebaduka who last performed in 1996. Fred Masagazi and Eclas Kawalya are credited for having popularized it by actively recording in this genre in the 1960s and early 1970s. They were followed by a number of musicians who stayed true to the style and sound of the music. In the mid to late 1970s, during the dark days of Idi Amin, this genre was kept alive by Peterson Mutebi. Although many song themes revolve around suffering and outrage, the original artists of this genre sang about love and often praised women in recordings that hardly exceeded three and a half minutes. Herman Basudde was a very popular kadongo kamu musician in the 80’s and 90’s. Dan Mugula is one of the few surviving pioneers of the genre. Fred Sebatta and Paulo Kafeero made their mark in the 90’s. Over the past decade, there have been other musicians, but they have been overshadowed by pop musicians in the new bustling pop music scene. Today, the genre is still marginalized, but the music is loved by cultural loyalists in the Buganda region, as can be seen with current musicians like Fred Sebaale and Mathias Walukagga, who are still enjoying music success.

Kaiso

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Terminology#

In the Igbo language ka anyị sonye means “Let’s join”. The word is often used synonymously with calypso today, but often with the connotation that the former is more authentic, showing approval consistent with its original meaning. This word can also be found in an Igbo name. Kaisoluchukwu (Solu, Kaiso). Kaisoluchukwu means “Let’s respect/follow God” in the Igbo language.

Ibibio and Igbo influence on the etymology#

The Ibibio people/Igbo people and the origins of limbo and calypso. The enslaved Ibibios, Igbo and supposedly other slaves would gather, plant two poles on opposite ends, and place a bar across. They would take turns (individually) dancing and negotiating their bodies to go underneath the bar and exit on the opposite end without upsetting it, no matter how low the bar was. The accompanying chant used to egg on and lead the dancer to a successful exit went something like this: “kaiso, kaiso, kaiso” —– meaning “go forward, go ahead, more”. The dance was later named limbo. Ka means go. Iso means forward. Kaiso therefore, means go forward in the Ibibio language of Southeastern Nigeria. The Ibibios and Igbo people who were kidnapped from the Niger Delta and Calabar, shipped across the vast Atlantic Ocean, and subsequently enslaved in the Caribbean islands of Trinidad and Tobago brought their music, language, and traditions with them. In slavery, their customs and traditions got interwoven into the larger slave culture of the area, but the word kaiso (go forward, go ahead, or more) survived. It later became the name of Trinidad and Tobago’s most popular music. Kaiso evolved into calypso and that, too, evolved into soca music. The very fact that the word kaiso was common and accepted enough to be used for naming a dance or song suggests that the Ibibio and Igbo slave population of that area was strong and socially influential.

Kalindula

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

External links#

Tonga Music Festival photo gallery
Kalindula Music Videos
Musical instruments in Zambia: kalindula
Songs and dances in Zambia: kalindula
Gatherings in Zambia: social dance meetings, kalindula icila
Gatherings in Zambia: modern beer party, kalindula sandauni

Kenyan hip-hop

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Development#

As hip hop gained recognition in the global music scene in the late 1980s and early 1990s, it became increasingly common in Kenyan media. As most American rappers were of African descent, Kenyan youths felt represented and inspired, and started emulating them by wearing African American urban fashion; exchanging albums, mix tapes, hip hop magazines such as Word Up and The Source; and reciting song lyrics and rapping in English. The movement spread further when matatus painted with graffiti started playing rap music, and some Kenyan artists started releasing rap-influenced songs. According to Alicia Rebensdorf, initially there was a strong correlation between rap music and wealth in Nairobi in the 1990s. The extremely high cost of rap CDs, magazines, merchandise, and music equipment led the genre to be initially exclusive to middle- and upper-class youths. the beginnings of Kenyan hip hop was like a “new breed of colonialism,” transplanting the original styles from the Westernized world to Africa. However, Kenya has not only embraced but also appropriated the genre, creating its own distinct version. Since its explosion in the mid-1990s, Kenyan hip hop is now generally written and performed in English, Swahili, and Sheng, a slang combination of the two.

Kidandali

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Form#

Stylistically, this genre draws directly from two other music genres while indirectly drawing from another. The two genres being Kadongo Kamu and Soukous (lingala). Indirectly, Kidandali is most times cemented by the Dem Bow riddim, a result of the early Ragga influence on Ugandan pop music. The similarity and influence of Kadongo Kamu is seen in the role played by the bass guitar. The bass guitar is the most pronounced instrument and it controls the rhythm and tempo of the song just like in kadongo kamu. The playing pattern is also very similar. Another area where kadongo kamu influence is visible is in the way the vocals are delivered. The music themes are also similar to kadongo kamu. Story telling and giving of advice to listeners is common place. In regards to lingala, the influence is seen in the role the other instruments play, most notably the lead guitar and electric guitar, which are played in a pattern similar to that in lingala music. The use of trumpets is similar to that in lingala. All these factor into making it the most organic style of music in Uganda.

Kilalaky (music genre)

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

Kilalaky has its roots in the cultural traditions of the Sakalava people in Menabe. The genre has evolved over time while maintaining a prominent role in local ceremonies and celebrations, such as the fitampoha festivities near the Tsiribihina River. Kilalaky was very popular in Madagascar from the mid-2000s to the late 2010s. During the mid-2000s, the genre was modernized with the inclusion of modern instruments such as keyboard, bass guitar, and drum kit, used alongside traditional instruments like the kabosy.

Kizomba

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Music genre#

The origins of kizomba can be traced to the late 1970s Angola. Most kizomba songs are sung in Angolan Portuguese/Portuguese.

Dance genre#

Semba, a dance and music genre, rose in popularity in Angola during the 1950s. This was as a result of the development of modern Angolan music which is attributed to the musical group Ngola Ritmos. After gaining independence from Portugal, Angola entered a civil war in 1975 that lasted to 2002. As few semba music was being released during this early period, Angolans started to look else where for musicality such as the Caribbean. In the 1980s, when the actual kizomba music was pioneered and got more and more popular, Angolans started to adapt their semba steps according to the tempo and flavour of the Kizomba beats. As such Kizomba (dance) has essentially remained to many Angolans to what is referred to as “Semba Social”, only that it is danced to a spectrum of various music genre such as semba, kizomba or zouk. The emphasis is “Semba social” as Semba is often misinterpreted as “Semba Show” which is a style of Semba that is characterized with fast semba or zouk music alongside various dance tricks. As Kizomba is essentially “Semba Social”, that left room for “Semba Show” to be marketed as Semba by Angolan teachers outside of Angola. The Kizomba dance is a couple dance, in which the torso and right arm of the leader will guide the follower across the dance floor. It is the goal to synchronize perfectly as a couple with the music and express it through elegant footwork, smooth body movement, and attitude, called Ginga (for women) and Banga (for men).

Kpanlogo

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Origin#

It was first played by the Ga ethnic group in the Greater Accra Region, most of whom live in and around the capital city, but is now performed and enjoyed throughout the country. It began in the early 1960s as an innovative dance form, influenced by American rock and roll, and giving the younger Ga generations a point of distinction from their elders. Ghanaian master drummer C. K. Ladzekpo states that kpanlogo “is essentially an urban youth dance-drumming and a symbol of the commitment of a rapidly growing Ghanaian urban neighborhood youth in advocating their perspective in shaping the political vision of post colonial Africa” (1995: web). The kpanlogo dance is often performed low to the ground, with bent knees and bent back, and frequently features sexually suggestive motions. Accounts of police seizing musical instruments and detaining performers in its early days have been documented. The music accompanying the kpanlogo dance is drawn from older Ga drumming traditions, such as gome, oge and kolomashie. Kpanlogo music uses three types of instruments: nono (metal bell), fao (gourd rattle), and kpanlogo drums. Nono plays the key pattern or timeline of the music, supported by the fao. It is common to have three kpanlogo drums in an ensemble, in the roles of “male voice”, “female voice” and “master drum”. The main kpanlogo bell part is one of the most common and oldest key patterns found in sub-Saharan Africa. The bell pattern used in kpanlogo is the same as the son clave pattern heard in Cuban music and. It is also similar to the “Bo Diddley beat” popularized by the U.S. rhythm and blues musician Bo Diddley.

Kuduro

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Origins#

The roots of kuduro can be traced to the late 1980s when producers in Luanda started mixing African percussion samples with zouk béton (“hard” zouk) and soca to create a style of music then known as Batida (“Beat”). European and American electronic music had begun appearing in the market, which attracted Angolan musicians and inspired them to incorporate their own musical styles. Young producers began adding heavy African percussion to both European and American beats. In Europe, western house and techno producers mixed it with house and techno. Kuduro is primarily an electronic music genre. In addition to the aforementioned influences, Kuduro also incorporates regional styles that are based on global and local influences that highlight sonic expressions of personal and collective identities. These collective and personal identities were formed due to Angola’s turbulent history. The history of kuduro has come about in a time of Angolan civil unrest, and it provided a means of coping with hardship and positivity for the younger generation. Scholar Inês Cordeiro Dias describes how kuduro “became a popular form of artistic expression for Angolans, especially those living in the slums, to claim their space in the city, and to criticize society.” Angola experienced periods of war, repression, and some instances of political tranquility. The origin of Kuduro came from and due to this political instability. There was significant anti-colonial resistance to Portuguese rule and influence which created a transitional government composed of two political parties. These two parties engaged in power-based struggles and tensions that led to the Angolan Civil War. Such shift in attitude away from optimism was reflected through Kuduro’s increasing distortion in timbre and hardened aesthetics, while lyrics of the genre often reflected experiences of life in the musseques (Luanda’s informal, unpaved and marginal neighborhoods). After Angolan independence in 1975, the ruling party, the MPLA (Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola or the People’s Movement for the Liberation of Angola) adopted the musical genre for use in political campaigns, recognizing its popularity. As Vivian Host points out in her article, despite the common assumption that “world music” from non-Western countries holds no commonalities with Western modern music, Angolan kuduro does contain “elements in common with punk, deep tribal house, and even Daft Punk.” And although Angolan kuduro reflects an understanding and an interpretation of Western musical forms, the world music category that it fits under, tends to reject the idea of Western musical imperialism. Kuduro also was birthed out of the political climate that was taking place at the time of its origins. When looking at certain dance moves within the Kuduro genre, one can notice that the moves emulate that of a disabled person and their stature or movements. Given that there was a civil war taking place during the birthing of Kuduro and there were actual mine fields that blew off people’s limbs, it is discernible to see why Kuduro dance moves mimic an amputee’s movement. Kuduro as a dance genre is different than most in the fact that expands it inclusivity to disabled bodies and rewrites notions and narratives of Black disabled sexuality, given the erotic heteronormative nature of the dance moves. Kuduristas use body movements that often emanate movement/stillness, incoordination, falling, pop & lock, and breakdancing. This style of dance seems to “break down” body parts into isolations and staccato movements, serving as a reflection of debility and the mixture of abled/disabled bodies in performance. Kuduro is usually performed in the streets, where groups gather in circles and one by one come into the center and perform their movements while impressing the crowd. Usually, participation is open to everyone, and the audience claps and cheers on the dancers. Kuduristas contort their bodies in direct response to their spatial environments: “Kuduristas, acutely aware of the six to twenty million landmines still waiting to be detonated, as well as the fact that one out of every 334 Angolans has lost a limb as a result of landmine detonation, emulate to various degrees the movements of the land mine victims around them, and are themselves victims.” Young also argues that kuduristas use their dancing “to signify on the normative landscape of the black body,” and by extension, their spatial order. Acts of oppression (colonialism) and violence have composed their environments as sites of subjugation, but these dancers influence the essence of their settings by taking up space and recasting it through their bodies and movement.

Kwaito

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Etymology#

The word kwaito originates from the South African slang “kwaai,” which conveys the meaning of “cool” or “bad” in a positive context. The term “kwaai” itself is rooted in Afrikaans, where it initially signified “angry” or “fierce.” However, within the framework of South African youth culture, its connotation had shifted to represent something fashionable or noteworthy. Kwaito led a post-Apartheid township subculture into the mainstream despite the fact that the Afrikaans language is associated with the apartheid regime and racial oppression, Afrikaans words are often drawn into the Sabela and Tsotsitaal and Camtho vocabularies, reshaped and used in a related or new context. M’du Masilela, a pioneering kwaito artist, said, “When house music got popular, people from the ghetto called it Kwaito after the Afrikaans slang word kwai , meaning those house tracks were hot, that they were kicking.” An Isicamtho word derived from the Afrikaans word kwaai is amakwaitosi, which means gangster. Arthur Mafokate described the relationship between kwaito and gangsterism as music revolving around ghetto life.

Kwela

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Origin#

The most common explanation for the word “kwela” is that it is taken from the Zulu for “climb”, though in township slang it also referred to police vans, the “kwela-kwela”. Thus, it could be an invitation to join the dance, as well as serving as a warning. It is said that the young men who played the pennywhistle on street corners also acted as lookouts to warn those enjoying themselves in the shebeens of the arrival of the police. White people, unaware of its meaning, then thought that it referred to the music when they heard people shouting “Here comes the kwela, kwela!” warning of the police’s presence. Kwela music was influenced by blending the music of Malawian immigrants to South Africa with the local South African sounds. In Chichewa, “kwela” has a similar meaning to the South African one: “to climb”. The music was popularised in South Africa and then brought to Malawi, where contemporary Malawian artists have also begun producing kwela music. others maintain that there is no specific kwela chord progression, or that I-IV-V-I and I-I-IV-V are particularly prevalent.

Makossa

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Etymology#

The word “makossa” is originated from the Duala words “m’a” and “kossa”. “Kossa” is a term that was a term at the edge of neologism expressed initially as a cry of exhortation, and as “a kind of swear word that has the status of a stimulus, a spur. In the book Le Makossa: une musique africaine moderne, a passage including this quote is written as follows: :“En effet, le terme Makossa, dérive de « m’a kossa » qui veut dire littéralement en langue duala et au pluriel les contorsions; au singulier « di kossa » la contorsion. Ce vocable « Kossa » est un terme à la lisière du néologisme et du cri d’exhortation, mieux, une sorte de juron ayant statut de stimulus, d’aiguillon.” : “Kossa is a kind of exclamation, a cry of joy that is usually uttered to give more vigor, and more energy to the dance.” In the original French version, a passage including the translated version of this quote reads: :“Remy MINKO MBA poursuit: « Kossa est une sorte d’exclamation, un cri de joie que l’on pousse généralement pour donner plus de vigeur, plus d’énergie à la danse. Il s’agit donc d’une sorte de stimulus qui doit nécessairement provoquer une réaction positive ».”

Malawian hip-hop

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Early history#

By the late 1990s, the scene began to gain traction with a few rap songs being released to the public. The early 2000s is when more artists started to embrace the music and participated in hip-hop culture. At this time, personal computers started to become more popular and recording hardware such as microphones and digital audio interfaces became more affordable and available. Pirated versions of Digital Audio Workstations (DAWs) such as FL Studio, Ableton Live, REAPER, and Cakewalk enabled individuals to produce and record their own music in home studios. The launch of Television Malawi in 1999 also provided a platform for rappers to have their music videos beamed to a national audience. The music video to Wisdom Chitedze’s song Tipewe was on regular rotation on the station in its early days and is often cited as the first Malawian rap music video. In the early to mid-2000s artists such as Nospa G, M Krazy, David Kalilani, and Gosple helped push the music further. Much like other forms of Malawian music, a lot of the early hip-hop released contained social commentary, religious, and introspective themes. But as the years passed, a wider variety of subject matter was adopted. The rap group Biriwiri Released a highly popular single titled “Daily Daily”, which helped ingratiate hip-hop to a wider audience due to its playful and relatable lyrics about being in a relationship with someone you want to see on a daily basis. Other notable rappers who were early on the scene include Criminal A, Bantu Clan, Real Elements, Dynamike, Dominant 1, and Knights of the Round Table. By the late 2000s the scene had picked up further with artists such as Barry One, Basement, Mandela Mwanza aka Third Eye, Hyphen, Fredokiss, and Tay Grin gaining notoriety. Tay Grin’s music video for the song Stand Up was featured considerably on Channel O. He was not the first Malawian rapper to get his song on that station; that accolade goes to the Real Elements. However, Tay Grin’s song got much more airplay. In 2009, Phyzix released his debut studio album The Lone Ranger LP which contained the hit singles Cholapitsa and Gamba which brought him a lot of attention. At the same time The Dare Devilz who were based in Blantyre, Malawi started getting a lot of airplay and became instrumental in producing music for the likes of Fredokiss and a variety of Blantyre-based rappers. Urban secondary schools and colleges such as the Malawi Polytechnic and the Chancellor College became hubs for young people who were interested in rap. Many rappers honed their skills during variety shows, public fun fairs, and college social weekends and so on. In the mid-2000s many colleges recorded and released cyphers via online platforms such as YouTube to showcase some of their hip-hop talent.

Malipenga

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

First accounts of Malipenga dance were done after the end of the First World War. Its origins are linked to the system of military parades introduced by the British officers of the King’s African Rifles that fought against the Germans. Several studies consider malipenga as a variant of beni, like kalela and mganda. In Malawi, mganda and malipenga are names used interchangeably. After the end of the war, the veterans that returned home adopted British military and administration terminology and formed “governments” called “bomas” in the form of a Malipenga dance movement, with a strong influence of military parades and bands. Malipenga in Chitumbuka, Chitonga, and Cinyanja means “trumpets”. The location where dancing takes places is called “boma”.

Maloya

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Description#

Compared to séga, which employs numerous string and wind European instruments, traditional maloya uses only percussion and the musical bow. Maloya songs employ a call-response structure.

Instruments#

Traditional instruments include: *roulér – a low-tuned barrel drum played with the hands *kayamb – a flat rattle made from sugar cane tubes and seeds *pikér – a bamboo idiophone played with sticks * sati – a flat metal idiophone played with sticks *bob – a braced, struck musical bow

Marabi

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External links#

South African Music: Marabi

Marrabenta

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Etymology#

The name may be derived from the Portuguese word rebentar (arrabentar in the local vernacular), which means “to break”. This may refer to the cheap musical instruments used in this music, which are often played energetically until they fall apart. Vocalist Dilon Djindji claims this refers to the energetic performances he delivered while on tour across Mozambique, as the intensity and vitality of his shows led audiences to believe that he was ‘breaking’ the emotional limits of those in attendance. The musicians who played Marrabenta came to be called arrabenta. Over time, the name Marrabenta has grown in popularity and continues to be used today.

Maskandi

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Origins#

The music originated in “female gourd-resonated monochord songs that were transferred and given an acoustic life on guitar”. The roots of what is today called maskandi have been traced back to non-guitar based forms of music in the 1920s, with the shift to guitar beginning in Rhodesia in the 1930s with a group of musicians inspired by the music in Western films. It was then developed by migrant workers in South Africa.

Mbalax

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History and influence#

The traditional form of mbalax originated from the sabar, a Wolof genre that historically fused musical and cultural practices from different ethnic groups such as the Njuup, a religious Serer music. The popular dance form of mbalax developed in urban Senegal in the early 1970s. Like many other francophone West African countries the Senegalese popular music scene was partially influenced by soul, blues, jazz, R&B, and rock from the United States, varieté from France, Congolese rumba, and Latin pop from the Caribbean and New York (e.g., pachanga, son, charanga, salsa, and Latin jazz). In this mix of African diasporic sounds Senegalese fans and musicians wanted their own urban popular dance music so they began singing in Wolof (Senegal’s lingua franca) instead of French, and incorporated rhythms of the indigenous sabar drum (see Mangin ). Dancers began using moves associated with the sabar, and tipping the singers as if they were traditional griots. Among the bands that played this new style, Etoile de Dakar (starring Youssou N’Dour and El Hadji Faye), and Raam Daan (starring Thione Seck), Xalam II, and Super Diamono. Since becoming popular, both Mbalax and its associated dance have spread to other regions such as Mali, Mauritania, Ivory Coast and France. This dissemination has come about through radio, audio cassettes and televised video clips. Mbalax instrumentation includes keyboards, synths and other electronic production methods. However, it is the Nder (lead drum), the Sabar (rhythm drum), and the Tama (talking drum) percussion, and widely influenced African and Arabic vocalistic stylings that continue to make Mbalax one of the most distinctive forms of dance music in west Africa and the diaspora. Jazz, Funk, Latin (especially Cuban) and Congolese pop music influenced the early sounds of Mbalax, today it is also influenced by RnB, Hip-Hop, Coupé-Décalé, Zouk and other modern Caribbean, Latin, and African pop musics. Mbalax artists frequently collaborate with artists from other genres, such as Viviane Ndour’s work with Zouk star Philip Monteiro and French/Malian rap star Mokobé. Perhaps the most well known collaboration of all was Youssou Ndour’s huge hit with Neneh Cherry; ‘Seven Seconds’.

Mbaqanga

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

In Zulu, the term mbaqanga means an everyday cornmeal porridge. Mbaqanga aficionados were mostly plebeian, metropolitan African jazz enthusiasts. Many of them were not permitted to establish themselves in the city, but they were unable to sustain themselves in the rural country. Mbaqanga gave them a staple form of musical and spiritual sustenance; it was their “musical daily bread.” Mbaqanga musicians received little money. For example, Simon “Mahlathini” Nkabinde, one of the most well-known mbaqanga singers (and arguably the most famous mbaqanga “groaner”, nicknamed the “lion of Soweto”), died a poor man. This was partly due to the exploitation of black South African musicians at home and abroad as Mahlathini pointed out. Mbaqanga groups of the 1960s also found it difficult to get air time on local radio stations, and had to perform outside record stores to attract audiences. Mbaqanga developed in the South African shebeens during the 1960s. Its use of western instruments allowed mbaqanga to develop into a South African version of jazz. Musically, the sound indicated a mix between western instrumentation and South African vocal style. Many mbaqanga scholars consider it to be the result of a coalition between marabi and kwela. A South African tourist website sponsored by the government describes mbaqanga as “the cyclic structure of marabi . . . with a heavy dollop of American big band swing thrown on top.” Mbaqanga also provided a very early forum for black and white interaction in a segregated country. As a result, the “white Nationalist government brought this vital era to an end” by razing the townships that supported mbaqanga such as Sophiatown. The genre gained popularity as a result of radio play by stations under the South African Broadcasting Corporation. Early artists included Miriam Makeba, Dolly Rathebe and Letta Mbulu. Mbaqanga maintained its popularity until the 1980s when it was replaced by South African pop music known as bubblegum. Bubblegum is a genre highly influenced by mbaqanga. One of the few remaining mbaqanga bands is The Cool Crooners. This band consists of a coalition between two rival bands that eventually merged: The Cool Four and The Golden Delicious Rhythm Crooners.

Mbube (genre)

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Background#

In Johannesburg, Solomon Linda, a man from Natal, created one of the most famous African songs, “Mbube”, which eventually became its own genre. In 1933 Linda began singing with a group of friends called the Evening Birds. In 1939, they recorded a few tracks for Gallo Records when Linda improvised the first 15 notes of a song they called “Mbube”. The success of this song led to the conception of a whole new genre, characterized by a loud and powerful cappella four part harmony, accompanied by dancing. The song was later made internationally famous, by The Weavers as “Wimoweh” in 1948 and then as “The Lion Sleeps Tonight” by The Tokens in 1961. Miriam Makeba’s recording of “The Lion Sleeps Tonight” in the 1960s helped popularize the genre and establish the singing tradition. However, it was Robert John’s rendition of “The Lion Sleeps Tonight” that is the most well-known; the song reached #3 on the US charts, and selling more than one million copies for which he was awarded a gold disc by the Recording Industry Association of America. Associated with poor migrant workers, the origins of Mbube can be traced back to the 1920s in the Natal region when the area became heavily industrialized with coal mines and factories. According to Joseph Shabalala (leader and founder of Ladysmith Black Mambazo), young South African Zulu men from nearby towns and villages began to flock to this area to find work, often in mines. These men brought with them their own cultures and, in order to preserve a sense of community, formed choirs. These male workers were often lodging in hostels where they created a weekend social life that revolved around singing and dancing. There were competitions where the best groups would showcase their talents and a winner would be awarded not with money, but honor. As these competitions became more popular so did this new style of music. It spread to Johannesburg, one of the largest South African cities. Mbube is a precursor to the more currently popular African choral genres mbaqanga and iscathamiya. Since the formation of Ladysmith Black Mambazo, the mbube has fallen out of style in favor of isicathamiya, which is a softer, lighter genre.

Middle Eastern and North African music traditions

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Middle East and North Africa#

File:Abderrahmane Abdelli.jpg Algerian musician Abderrahmane Abdelli performing in Belgium name = Dabke دبكة image = Palestinian girls dancing traditional Dabke.jpg caption = Palestinian girls dancing traditional dabke image size = 300px medium = Circle dance and line dancing types = Variations ancestor = culture = Levantine era = File:La fête de la musique au centre culturel dEgypte (Paris) (7416610718).jpg Egyptian music instrument Mizmar File:Sintir player in Rabat, Morocco.JPG A Moroccan instrument sintir or gimbri File:2 dhols.jpg Iranian instrument dohol

Morna (music)

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

As a music genre#

As a music genre, the morna is characterized by having a lento tempo, a 2-beat bar (sometimes 4) and in its most traditional form by having a harmonic structure based on a cycle of fifths, while the lyrics structure is organized by musical strophes that alternate with a refrain. The morna is almost always monotonic, i.e., it is composed in just one tonality. Compositions that use more than one tonality are rare and generally they are cases of passing from a minor to major tonality or vice versa.

Ndombolo

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Etymology#

The dance choreography features hip gyrations that showcase the posterior as the dancer executes forward and backward movements. According to Paris-based writer Milau K. Lutumba, this stylized dance mimics the gait, dance, or movements of gorillas and chimpanzees during courtship rituals. This metaphorical construct emerged as a collective expression of the Congolese populace’s hope for an end to the regime of president Mobutu Sese Seko. By late 1996, Mobutu, gravely ill and largely absent from Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo), faced a mounting rebellion led by Laurent-Désiré Kabila, which began with cross-border attacks from Rwanda on Hutu refugee camps in eastern Zaire and quickly escalated into a broader military campaign by the Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la Libération du Congo. Despite Mobutu’s efforts to reassert control, including appointing General Likulia Bolongo as prime minister and entrusting General Donatien Mahele Lieko Bokungu with national security, the regime ultimately crumbled, and by May 1997, Mobutu had fled into exile as Kabila’s forces captured Kinshasa with minimal resistance. During this tumultuous period, musicians and street youth known as shegue played a crucial role in documenting and interpreting political events through atalaku. Among the most resonant terms to emerge from this context was ndombolo, with the atalaku serving as oral chroniclers of daily life and wartime experience, their chants, or cris, often carrying layered meanings. One notable chant from the period, Tala soldat aza kopepula la guerre (“look at this soldier, he is blowing the war”), used a metaphorical phrase to describe soldiers who fled battle, capturing the widespread disillusionment within Mobutu’s forces, many of whom deserted or sold their ammunition to Kabila’s troops. The term ndombolo became a mocking descriptor of these soldiers’ disorganized and unsteady retreat, likening their erratic gait to a clumsy dance of defeat. This derisive association contrasted with ndombolo’s later reappropriation as a symbol of cultural expression, and this image was also reinforced by performances featuring exaggerated movements mimicking limping or stumbling. Ndombolo’s etymology also draws on visual caricature and collective memory, as Kabila was satirically described as a dwarf with broken legs and a peculiar gait, echoed in the mocking lyrics “Makolo pete-pete, makolo buka-buka/Na démarche ya ndombolo” (“with weak and broken legs/with a walk like a dwarf man. Ndombolo”.) Popularized by Zaïko Langa Langa, these lyrics paired the term ndombolo with imagery of physical awkwardness and ridicule that targeted Kabila’s small stature and perceived ungainliness, which was a visual association that was not accidental but instead drew on cultural memories of pygmy performers and dancers who had historically been marginalized and exoticized in Congolese society. Pépé Kallé’s 1980s band Empire Bakuba had previously incorporated dwarf dancers such as Emoro Penga, whose emblematic, exaggerated, often misunderstood comic movements contributed to the popular conflation of pygmies with ndombolo-style dancing. As such, the term ndombolo came to embody a symbolic amalgam of comedic bodily expression, guerrilla cunning, and social commentary, whose metaphorical resonance extends to African folktales in which monkeys, known for their agility and mischievousness, are seen as symbols of wit and subversion, a symbolic framework within which Kabila, having waged a guerrilla war and emerged victorious against Mobutu, was likened to such a figure.

Ngoma music

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

Before colonization, ngoma was the dominant form of culture throughout the Great Lakes. During colonization, ngoma was outlawed as colonial administrations viewed it as unchristian and holding back the civilization process. Tanzanians created a new form of ngoma called mganda in the hope that it would appeal to the colonial administrators. Mganda ngoma adopted the costumes of western military uniforms and dress. It also adopted some of the military instruments. This would eventually become a form of big band music. Eventually, the first clubs opened in Dar es Salaam and Tanga for these mganda ngoma bands to perform. Their music began to be played on the radio and recorded in studios. Mganda ngoma music exploded in popularity and has become known as dansi (dance jazz) today. After independence, the government of Tanzania (TANU) placed a very strong emphasis on returning to traditional ngoma. While this was somewhat successful, TANU was never able to fully achieve the goals set out by Nyerere’s inaugural address. Even TANU still used dansi and kwaya as primary tools for education, national and political purposes. One dance may include aspects of as great a variety of tribal and geographic ranges as possible to appeal to as broad an audience as possible, particularly elders, while also using many inspirations from other genres such as dansi or bongo flava to appeal to the youths. Additionally ngoma has modernized its use of instruments. Many traditional instruments are no longer available or possible to make. Today modern manufactured instruments and gear, such as guitars, keyboards, microphones, and amplifiers are usually used.

Nigerian gospel

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Origin of Nigerian gospel songs#

The act of singing gospel songs is a practice that was brought into Nigeria about late 15th century, by Portuguese Catholic who had arrived Benin city at this time for missionary work. These songs were mostly rendered then during Church worship service. They took the form of monophonic liturgy like the Gregorian chant - these are songs without polyphony and not written (rendered in parts) but having only one line of melody. By mid-19th century, missionary activities (which had diminished earlier) had revived in Nigeria. This time around, it was championed by the Church Missionary Society (CMS), which is owned and funded by the Church of England (Anglican Communion). At this time, the activities of CMS centered mostly around South-west, Nigeria. The CMS introduced a different genre of Church music that involved congregational singing of hymns led by a choir. Incidentally (and not surprising), the first known Nigerian to have recorded gospel songs was a product of the Anglican Communion’s CMS. He is the late Reverend Josiah Jesse Ransome-Kuti.

Nigerian reggae

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Background#

Nigerian reggae is a style of raggae-fusion that evolved in the late 1960s, and later became a major part of the music of Nigeria, especially after the rise of singer Majek Fashek. Fashek was a member of the long-running band Jah Stix, along with Ras Kimono and Amos McRoy. One of the notable musicians from this genre is Daniel Wilson (AKA Mr. Ragamuffinwik) who introduced his brand of ragamuffin music to Nigeria. Daniel Wilson dazzled the Nigerian music scene with hits like “Mr.Ragamuffin” and “Original Bad Boy”. Other musicians include Jerri Jheto, Daddy Showkey, Ras Kimono, Rymzo, De king, the high school band of Victor Essiet and Peggy Umanna, The Mandators, and the London-based MC Afrikan Simba. These pioneers of reggae music include big names like Orits Williki, Peterside Ottong, Andy Shoreman, Alex Zitto, Evelyn Ogoli, Wale Man, and Isaac Black, among others, who paved the way for the new generation of homegrown reggae artists.

Nigerien hip-hop

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Rap Nigerien#

Rap Nigerien is a mélange of different languages spoken in Niger. Sampled music is often mellow, and is mixed with the traditional music, although more aggressive dance styles have been mixed in, reflecting influences of French, American, and other West African hip hop styles (especially Ivorian hip hop). Niger’s hip hop scene grew from humble beginnings to dominate much of Niger’s musical market. Young, dissatisfied Nigeriens have used the form to talk about things which anger them - forced marriages, child labor, corruption, poverty and other problems. Local recordings are mostly sold on cassette tapes and compact discs, as with most forms of contemporary West African popular music.

Njuup

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

Njuup songs are religious in nature. Modern Senegambian artists who sing the purest form of Njuup in the Serer language include Rémi Jegaan Dioh and Yandé Codou Sène.

Influence#

Njuup is the progenitor of Mbalax music. Mbalax music originated when prominent Senegalese artists, such Youssou N’Dour, began to incorporate Njuup into their works Unlike Njuup, which is religious, Mbalax is party music. All Mbalax artists are strongly influenced by the Njuup tradition. Senegalese artists who specialize in Mbalax include Mbaye Dieye Faye, Youssou N’Dour, and Thione Seck.

Odi Pop

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Origin#

Odi pop earliest roots can be traced back to early 2000 Kenyan gospel music which was faintly related to the church. In the early 1990s and 2000s, the Kenyan government and church had massive control over what was aired as there was only one state controlled broadcaster. The government clamped down on several secular artists who were considered enemies of state, resulting in the rise of Kenyan gospel music as the style was under an acceptable theme. In 2002, Gidi Gidi Maji Maji released ‘Unbwogable’ which was adopted by Kenyan politicians; future President Mwai Kibaki and future Kenyan Prime Minister Raila Odinga as the official campaign 2002 election campaign sound track. Ogopa DeeJays, a Kenyan record from the late 1990s was rising to prominence during this period developing music stars like E-sir, K- Rupt, Nameless, Amani, and others. Ogopa Deejays would become one of the most influential record labels in Kenya with their sound called Boomba Music (sometimes referred to as Kapuka). Boomba is one of the foundations of Odi Pop. During the same period, a wave of music called Genge was popularized by hip hop artist Jua Cali and Nonini from Calif Records. The term Genge was coined by their producer Clemo. A paper titled The Poetics of Genge: Jua Cali’s Niimbe was presented at the 26th annual MELUS conference and 6th conference of the United States Association for Commonwealth Literature and Language Studies (USACLALS), University of Santa Clara, California. In the following years artists like Mejja, Madtraxx, Jimwat and others played a critical role in shaping the Genge sound. In October 2016, rapper Collo from music group Kleptomaniax released ‘Bazokizo’ featuring Bruz Newton which is considered a turning point for Odi Pop. The viral nature of the song and numerous airplay brought Odi pop to mainstream media and opened the door for other Odi pop musicians including Timeless Noel and Jabidii. The style has emerged from the Nairobi area mainly in the Eastlands region including Kayole, Dandora, Umoja, Dagoretti, and Rongai.

Ohangla

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Owerri Bongo

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

The origins of Bongo music are not clear but it is believed that the sub-genre emerged during the 1980s and 1970s. The subgenre was popularised in the late 1970s by the Oriental Brothers International Band. Following the proliferation of pedal guitars in Nigerian music in the late 1970s the Oriental Brothers international band broadened the sub-genre by adding more complex guitar riffs with more emphasis on vocals.

Etymology#

Because of the heavy usage of drums in the sub-genre, it is believed that the term “Bongo” in Owerri Bongo got its name from the Bongo drum. In the Owerri dialect, bongos are known as “ogwe” (drum) which when hit makes a high-pitched sound.

Palm-wine music

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Etymology#

Palm-wine music was named after a drink, palm wine, made from the naturally fermented sap of the oil palm, which was drunk at gatherings where early African guitarists played.

History#

Palm-wine music was born in the working-class coastal areas, particularly among dockworkers, sailors, and fishermen. This area was a major hub of the triangle trade, which brought in new European instruments. Music was performed in informal outdoor drinking clubs where palm wine was available, giving it its name. The genre was created by interactions between native West Africa, mainly on the shores of the Gulf of Guinea. Makeshift guitar performance styles spread from coastal to inland areas, where they shaped early forms of urban music. Palm-wine music has been described as one of the first forms of popular music in West Africa. Portable instruments and local string and percussion merged to create this style. It was out of this genre that the traditional two-finger plucking of a guitar came when musicians played it similarly to how they played the local lute or harp. This style was typically played in a syncopated 4/4 metre.

Pygmy music

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Polyphonic song#

The Mbenga (Aka/Benzele) and Baka peoples in the west and the Mbuti (Efé) in the east are particularly known for their dense contrapuntal communal improvisation. Simha Arom says that the level of polyphonic complexity of Mbenga–Mbuti music was reached in Europe only in the 14th century. The polyphonic singing of the Aka Pygmies was relisted on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2008. Mbenga–Mbuti Pygmy music consists of up to four parts and can be described as an “ostinato with variations” similar to a passacaglia in that it is cyclical. It is based on repetition of periods of equal length that each singer divides using different rhythmic figures specific to different repertoires and songs. This creates a detailed surface and endless variations not only of the same period repeated but of various performances of the same piece of music. As in some Balinese gamelan music, these patterns are based on a super-pattern which is never heard. The Pygmies themselves do not learn or think of their music in this theoretical framework, but learn the music growing up. Polyphonic music is only characteristic of the Mbenga and Mbuti. The Gyele/Kola, Great Lakes Twa and Southern Twa have very different musical styles.

Qaraami

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History and Origins#

The Qaraami music genre emerged in the 1930s from a specific form of poetry known as Qaraami. Originating in the historic town of Saylac (Zeila), the movement rapidly expanded to northern Somali towns such as Hargeisa and Berbera, where it gained widespread popularity among young people. The Qaraami poetry movement was spearheaded by a youth subculture known as the Kabacad, notable for their fashionable white shoes, which became an identifying symbol of the movement. Cilmi Boodheri is widely recognized as the most famous of the Kabacad poets. Leading Qaraami poets were regularly invited to perform at wedding ceremonies and popular gatherings known as “gaaf,” which attracted large crowds of young people in spite of widespread disapproval from elders and religious scholars. Qaraami poems were collaboratively composed by groups of young poets seated in a circle, who improvised short verses in formats such as lug-kowle (one-lined), labaale (couplets), and saddexle (triplets), with one poet reciting a line and the final half-line (hooris) chanted collectively as a chorus before the next poet continued. This innovative method, referred to by the Kabacad as ‘subcis’ (or rotation) and influenced by traditional Quranic revising sessions, marked a departure from the conventional Somali gabay style. Qaraami songs display notable influences from traditional pastoral folk dances such as the Dhaanto, incorporating its metrical pattern and couplet stanza format. According to Qarshe, the emergence of modern Somali song in the north was largely driven by the urban revival of the Dhaanto movement led by Diiriye Baalbaal. Abdullahi Qarshe is widely credited with being the first to set Qaraami poetry to music and is recognized as the founder of the modern Qaraami music genre. Other notable Kaban players of the 50s included Ali Feiruz and Mohamed Nahari. According to Afrax, the genre eventually split into two distinct forms, termed ‘Qaraami 1’ and ‘Qaraami 2’, with the later kind emerging in the 40s.

Rebita

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Rebita Bands and Musicians#

In the history of Rebita music, musicians who made significant progress and development in the musical style include Ngola Ritmos, Mestre Geraldo Morgado, União Kaboko Meu, Euclides Fontes Pereira, Amadeu Amorim.

Rieldans

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Etymology#

The dance was not originally called “riel”. The original Khoisan and San languages had mostly disappeared and in South Africa these groups mostly speak Afrikaans. The word was later borrowed from “reel”, a Scottish folk dance and in Afrikaans the dance became known as the “riel”. In Nama the dance is known as Ikhapara which is derived from the word “khapas” which means “hat”. The hat of the man is a useful article to win a lady’s hand in marriage

Sakara music

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History and development#

Sakara music started to develop in the 1930s, which was a time period of rapid cultural exchange in colonial Lagos. As a result of this, Yoruba musicians started to adapt indigenous style performances to their urban audiences. Sakara also started to emerge as a bridge between traditional Yoruba oral poetry and early Nigerian popular music. Abibu Oluwa was one of the earliest known Sakara performers who influenced the establishment of the genre’s fundamental musical structure and the style people performed in. However, after he died in 1964, his leadership passed to Salami Alabi Balogun (Lefty) http://www.mattin.org/essays/lagos.html#:~:text=Salamo%20Alabi%20Balogun%20(1913%E2%80%931981,percussion%20traditions%20and%20Islamic%20chants. . Salami was a highly influential talking drummer who recorded extensively and helped preserve Sakara music during its peak commercial period. At this time, Sakara was becoming more popular and present in Africa. Another very central figure in the genre’s quick expansion was Yusuf Olatunji. Yusuf was born in 1909, and he died in 1978. However, there are some questions about his actual place of birth, but some people claimed that he was a native of Iseyin in Oyo State, south-western Nigeria. He was born a Christian, but he converted to Islam and changed his name. After changing his name, his life drastically changed because his music started to really boom in the music industry. Through numerous recordings and performances, he brought Sakara music to a wider national audience. His influence was such that a street in Abeokuta was later named in his honor.

Salegy

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Artists and bands#

Anziza Salema
Arsène Félix
Dr. J.B. and the Jaguars
Fenoamby
Eusèbe Jaojoby
Fredy de Majunga
Gérard Tsapalôko
IO Anay
Jaojoby Junior
Joacin-tapaka
Lazard
Mily Clément
Mister Rotsirotsy
Ninie Doniah
Olga del Madagascar
Paskaal Japhet
SISCA
Tianjama
Vaiavy Chila
Wawa

Santé engagé

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Context#

The 1960s and 1970s (“les années de braise”) have been a very bustling period in the history of Mauritius. It has been a period of high interracial tension leading to more than 300 deaths due to interracial affrays. It has also been an indecisive period with regard to the cultural heirloom of the island with a deep reconsidering of the multicultural image.

Independence of Mauritius#

Mauritius attained independence from Great Britain in 1968 without real exhilaration. A profound division prevailed between, on one side, the members of the independent movement and, on the other side, the anti-independentists. The island is faced with a vertiginously high level of unemployment and people still had in mind the recent interracial tensions peaking in 1964 and 1968. Under the pretext of security and law and order, the newly formed government of Mauritius took highly repressive measures against opponents who intended to put forward ideas adverse to those of the governing regime. Even though independence was declared in 1968, British colonial presence and dominance remained clearly visible throughout the 1970s.

Sebene

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Etymology#

According to most Congolese musicologists, the term sebene was adapted from the English numeral seven. Although this attribution ostensibly ensues from folk etymology, it is believed that Congolese musicians assimilated this terminology from the palm-wine guitar tradition prevalent among West African migrants who resettled in Léopoldville (now Kinshasa) during the early 1900s and “whose music was interspersed with seventh chords (“seventh” → “seben”)”. While alternate descriptive designations (e.g., “chauffée”, “saccadée”, “animation”, “partie dansante”, “ambiance”) are used to delineate this musical interlude, sebene stands as the oldest and pervasive terminology extensively preferred by musicians.

Senegalese hip-hop

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Colonization of Senegal#

To understand Senegal’s popularity as a mixture of different sounds is understanding Senegal’s history of colonization. Modern Senegal is made up of an ethnically diverse group of people. “The largest of the city include the Wolof (44% of the population), Fulani and Tukulor (24%), Serer (15%), Diola (5%) and, Mandinka (4%).” During the 9th century the Tukulor settled in the Senegal River Valley and resided there until the 14th century. Within their rein, into the mid 11th century they converted to Islam. The Mali Empire expanded during the 14th century, and in the 15th century, the Wolf established the Jolof Empire in Senegal. The Portuguese settlers set up trading spaces for access to resources, but by the 17th century, the city was rid of the Portuguese by the Dutch and the French. The French resided there until 1895 when Senegal was established as a French colony. In the early 1960s Senegal became an autonomous republic within the French community. Hence forward, the estate went through several forms of political oppression and reconstruction until finally Abdoulaye Wade was elected president in March 2000 and the Senegalese Democratic Party had finally won, bringing peace and improvement to the land. “The development of modern music dates back to the musical traditions established by ‘griots’ in the days of the Mali-Songhay empires.” It can be noted that the first form of musical expression made in Senegal date back to the 14th century in the forms of griots.

Shangaan electro

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

Previous to releases by Honest Jon’s in the late 2000s, the Shangaan Electro movement has a vast catalogue of cassettes, CD-Rs and DVDs released locally in South Africa via Nozinja Productions. The style has since gained international attention through the release of the compilation Shangaan Electro: New Wave Dance Music From South Africa via Honest Jon’s which showcased the production work of Nozinja and the vocal/dance crews he had established. The record and the attention it threw on various YouTube clips of the dancers in action led to a succession of performances at Sónar festival, Berghain and elsewhere across Europe, Australia and Africa.

Shona music

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Mbira#

The mbira is a traditional instrument of the Shona people often used in religious ceremonies. There are several different varieties of mbira including the mbira dzavadzimu and mbira nyunga nyunga. Shona music is well known as representative of mbira (“thumb piano”) music. The performer of the “kushaura” (lead mbira part) often acts also as the lead vocalist, selecting a known melody or mbira pattern to accompany selected lyrics, usually a phrase or a few lines of text which are then commented upon improvisationally. The performer of the “kutsinira” (second mbira part) plays a pattern which interlocks with the “kushaura” in a way that creates the repeated notes which identify mbira music. The “kutsinira” part is sometimes the same part as the “kushaura”, but following the kushaura one pulse behind. The mbira players are accompanied by another less active singer who plays the hosho (a rattle) and responds to the improvised lyrics of the singer and, most importantly, embellishes and complements the lead vocal melody. (Garfias 1971)

Singeli

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

South African folk music and AIDS

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Khayelitsha Courthouse Protest 2002#

The Khayelitsha Courthouse is located in Cape Town, South Africa, a region with one of the highest reported rates of HIV/AIDS cases. During the demonstrations, they let music groups and individuals perform and demonstrators distributed free condoms out to the crowds of people that had gathered. While some people were supportive of bringing awareness, others were not. During the 1990s and early 2000s, some people believed that HIV/AIDS could be treated as communicable diseases with traditional therapy methods, while others in the awareness campaigns believed that biomedical therapy would be more effective as treatment.

Sub-Saharan African music traditions

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Regions#

Alan P. Merriam divided Africa into seven regions for ethnomusicological purposes, observing current political frontiers (see map), and this article follows this division as far as possible in surveying the music of ethnic groups in Africa. * Music of the northern region of Africa (red on the map), including that of the Horn of Africa (dark green on the map), is mostly treated separately under Middle Eastern and North African music traditions. * West African music (yellow on the map) includes the music of Senegal and the Gambia, of Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone and Liberia, of the inland plains of Mali, Niger and Burkina Faso and also the coastal nations of Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, Gabon and the Republic of the Congo as well as the islands of Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe. * Central African Music (dark blue on the map) includes the music of Chad, the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia. * The Eastern region (light green on the map) includes the music of Uganda, Kenya, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe as well as the islands of Madagascar, the Seychelles, Réunion, Mauritius and Comoros. The eastern region has received south Asian and even Austronesian influences via the Indian Ocean. * The Southern region (brown on the map) includes the music of South Africa, Lesotho, Eswatini, Botswana, Namibia and Angola.

Taarab

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Etymology#

The word taarab is a loanword from Arabic. The Arabic word tarab () means “having pleasure, delight with music”.

History of taarab music#

After the spreading of taarab from the Sultan’s palace to Zanzibari weddings and other community events, the first famous female singer of taarab was Siti bint Saad. The 1960s saw a group called the Black Star Musical Club from Tanga modernize the genre, bringing it to audiences farther afield, especially Burundi and Kenya. More recently, modern taarab bands like East African Melody have emerged, as have related backbiting songs for women, called mipasho. Taarab music is a fusion of Swahili poetry sung in rhythmic poetic style, performed by male or female singers and taarab ensembles comprising numerous musicians. Taarab forms a part of the social life of the Swahili people along the coastal areas, especially in Zanzibar, Tanga and even further in Mombasa and Malindi along the Kenya coast. Wherever the Swahili-speaking people travelled, Taraab moved with them. It has penetrated as far inland as Uganda, Rwanda and Burundi in East Africa, where taarab groups compete in popularity with other kinds of popular musical groups. In the early 21st century a taarab revolution has been taking place and much debate continues about the music which has been changed by the East African Melody phenomenon. Melody, as they are known by their mostly female fans, play modern taarab, which is ’taarab to dance to’ and features direct lyrics, bypassing the lyrical subtlety of the older songs, where the meaning of the lyrics is only alluded to, and never directly inferred.

Tabanka

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

As general music#

As general music, tabanka characterizes by having an allegro, a binary compass, and traditionally being melodic only. In its traditional form, its structure song-responst, in which a singer mainly chants a verse that are repeated in unison by other singers. It is rhythmically done with drums and other instruments including whistlers and conches. Tabanka today have been composed in other forms by recent composers and musicians.

History#

The word “tabanka” existed in Portuguese texts in around the 16th century. The word was likely originated from some of the African languages, mainly the westernmost part of West Africa, that time, it was used to build and design fortifications by Portuguese navigators in the coast of Guinea (now roughly Guinea-Bissau) in the Guinea-Bissau Creole, the word “tabanka” or “tabanca” means “locality” or “neighbourhood”, in Cape Verde, it achieved a different significance. The origin of tabanka is unknown, Semedo and Turano, one of the hypotheses for the rise of tabanka into the definition in the 18th century. Although tabanka was hostile by the Administration (due to the uprising by the slaves) and the church (not very “catholic”) in the early years. In 1896, tabanka became prohibited in Praia by the colonial governor Serpa Pinto. Performance was banned in urban centers and the genre was slowly disappearing. The ban lasted until Cape Verdean independence. Along with funaná and batuque, tabanka was a symbol for the struggle for Cape Verdean independence. Afterwards there were attempts to revive several Cape Verdean music styles. It did not met the success of the revival of funaná in the 1980s or batuque in the start of this century.

The Voëlvry Movement

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

South Africa lived under Apartheid—the separations of race enforced by law. The non-white race were barred from political office or even removed from the country. Uprising and protests increased in number and led to major anti-apartheid movements. One of these movements, in 1989, was called the Voëlvry movement. The Voëlvry movement started in the 1980s with the opening of Shifty Mobile Recording Studio. Started by Lloyd Ross, this company began playing Afrikaans rock music, but it was too early for wide acceptance. Shifty Records asked three major questions when looking at music to accept: is it original? Is it quality music? And does it allow for growth in South Africa’s music development? This led Ross to allow music that was angry and music that directly sang in response to Apartheid. Ross was quoted as saying, “But I am not a movement type of guy and never joined any political party or organization. What fascinated me was the culture coming out of it. That’s what I wanted to capture”. Ralph Rabie, under the stage name Johannes Kerkorrel, was a major force in the movement. Rabie used this name as a stage name to mock the Dutch Reformed Church. (Johannes Kerkorrel is the trademark of a Dutch organ.) Other musicians, such as Koos Kombuis, James Phillips (also performing under the name Bernoldus Niemand), and Karla Krimpelien were prominent in the movement.

Tizita

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Etymology and origin#

The term tizita is distinctly Tigrinya, and Amharic, there’s no Ge’ez equivalent, as opposed to the term nafkot which belongs to both languages with the same meaning (regret, emotion linked to a remembrance). Tizita folk songs developed in the countryside by the Amhara peasantry and the village musicians called the Azmaris.

Tizita music genre#

Tizita songs are a popular music genre in Ethiopia and Eritrea. It’s named after the Tizita Qañat mode/scale used in such songs. Western sources often compare tizita to the blues. Other musical equivalent are the Portuguese Saudade, Assouf for the Tuareg people, or Dor in Romania. In Slovakia, the closest word is clivota or cnenie, Sehnsucht in German, and “կարոտ” (phonetically karōt) in Armenian. Modern Ethiopian artists who have performed tizita songs include Aster Aweke, Hailu Mergia, Bezawork Asfaw, Teddy Afro, Mulatu Astatke, Meklit Hadero, Seyfu Yohannes and Mahmoud Ahmed.

Township music

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

The origins of township music in South Africa began from the formation of townships, which are urban residential areas where Africans were authorized to rent houses built by the government during the 1950s. Binns and Nel state in their article that townships were the poor, black residential areas created under apartheid, explicitly revealing that these townships were not for the wealthy Westerners living in South Africa, but for the lower class of South Africa. According to Ballantine, legislation was passed during the 1950s to further consolidate the apartheid state, and violent methods of implementation also assisted this along. In fact, the most serious legislation that was passed for urban black music was the Group Areas Act of 1950, which separated all racially mixed neighborhoods by removing black communities and relocating them on the peripheries into townships. To those who tried to suppress the lower-class Africans, jazz aspired to (among other things) musical and social equality, which was viewed as a form of rebellion during the time, hence its suppression. According to Ballantine, “the white and racist South African state” was forming an ideology and program for separating and turning black South Africans against one another.

Tsapiky

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Festivals#

Tsapiky festivals primarily occur in urban centers, such as Toliara. These festivals last for several days to a week, and consist of several concerts played for hours, supposedly inducing trance-like states from audience members. Typically, entire families come along, bearing gifts.

Tswana music

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Classification of music#

Tswana people classify their vocal music as ‘dipina’ (songs) according to their function within various social institutions for instance, music produced during initiation ceremonies is known as ‘moamo’. The performance of much of the Tswana traditional music is related to the agricultural season of the year. The seasons are as follows: *Letlhafula (Autumn):meaning ’to renew life’, a time of hoeing songs and work-party songs; *Mariga (Winter): meaning ‘shade’, a time for children’s fireside story songs; *Dikgakologo (Spring): meaning ’to melt away’, a time when women and children chase crops by singing in the fields; *Selemo (Summer): meaning ’to salvage fallen crops from loose soil’, a time for beer-brewing, beer-songs and beer-dances.

Wolof music

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Griot tradition#

Wolof musicians were traditionally drawn from the griots (géwél), or of the blacksmith caste (tëgg), who were masters of drumming. Griots taught history, ethics and religion using their songs and recitations, and were employed by powerful members of the community as praise-singers and historians. Today many modern Wolof musicians still come from Griot families. After the 19th century conversion of major Wolof kingdoms to Islam, the tagg, or ode song in Wolof, was reused in an Islamic Nasheed tradition—an important integration of pre-Islamic style into the new Muslim paradigm.

Xhosa music

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Structure#

Leader and Chorus * Xhosa traditional music commonly uses a leader and chorus format, also known as call-and-response. One lead singer will introduce a phrase, and the responding group will answer with recurring patterns. Vocals will typically enter in staggered intervals. Cyclical/Repetition * Songs also typically use a cyclical/repetitive structure. There is usually a very basic two-chord harmonic progression, either being V–IV or I–♭7, occasionally supported by an ostinato bass line. While this may seem simple, there is an intentional depth to the minimalism. Layered Voices * Layered vocals typically reinforce the importance of community behind Xhosa music. Different vocals often overlap one another, intensifying the music and emphasizing the collective voices. Improvisation * Improvisation is very common, especially in contemporary adaptations, adding to the established structures of the music. Because a cyclical structure is very common, performers will often improvise their vocals, emphasis, and rhythms, while maintaining the original structure.

Zamrock

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

Zamrock’s roots can be traced back to the 1950s, with northern singers from the Copperbelt Province such as Stephen Tsotsi Kasumali, William Mapulanga, and John Lushi. Zamrock as a musical movement came of age in the turbulent first decade after Zambia’s independence from British colonialism, rising and falling in tandem with the country’s economic success. In order to celebrate the culture of the newly independent nation, Kaunda decreed that 95% of music played on radio stations had to be Zambian in origin. When the country offered to shelter refugees, Zambia’s power stations were bombed. Once-prosperous cities were at the mercy of blackouts and curfews. The AIDS epidemic played a huge part in bringing Zamrock to an end. The disease began to spread in the 1980s and has continued to devastate the nation since. It is estimated that between 1.2 million and 1.3 million have died from AIDS in Zambia as of 2019. Every member of WITCH except Emanuel “Jagari” Chanda had died of AIDS by 2001. In the last 5 years since his return in 2017, he has performed in several European cities such as Moscow and Paris, something he never got the chance to do in his band’s prime. He has also toured around the United States, and been awarded for his achievements by the Zambian National Arts Council.

Zimbabwean jazz

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Different versions of Zimbabwean jazz#

Bulawayo jazz is a form of jazz that originated in the 1950s. A notable artist of this genre are The Cool Crooners.

Notable jazz musicians#

Charles Fernando
Victor Kunonga
Dorothy Masuka
Oliver Mtukudzi
August Musarurwa
Prince Kudakwashe Musarurwa
Percy Nehoreka Nhara
Josh Meck
Takakunda Mukundu

Zimdancehall

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Origins and Jamaican influence#

Zimdancehall started in the late 1980s, coinciding with the rise of sound system culture present in Zimbabwe at the time. It developed as a genre through continued exposure to Jamaican reggae and dancehall, which had both achieved global success and circulation. Early artists adapted several of these Jamaican rhythms and performance styles while incorporating local sayings and slang into their lyrics. The dancehall inspiration is also seen in the chanting styles, riddims, and street performances of the genre.

Zouglou

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

The export of the phenomenon#

It was in 1989 that the zouglou as dance, language and philosophy, exports of the city of Yop to that of Abobo. Opokou N’ti, with real skills choreographic was blessed by Joe Christy to “liberate” (dance) to the city of Abobo to demand “teachers” who had invited them to fraternize. A few weeks later comes the demonstration zouglou in non-student in the hall of Kumasi, when the Ziguehi was a reality in Côte d’Ivoire, facilitated by Alain Gaston Lago and Tahi (Commissioner Tricot). The man of letters and culture Alain Tahi (student at the time) would already spread phenomenon. Evolving in time, zouglou created and proposed successively dance steps without changing the truly musical form: Gnakpa, Kpaklo. Although in 1999 the zouglou achieved international renown thanks to Magic System, the genre remains relatively unknown. It currently has several dozen groups or artists and zouglou: Yodé & Siro (Best Album 2009 Zouglou sign with Zo, Mèlèkè Lago Paulin Khunta & Cisco (Gochinago) Patterns, New Leaders, Coco Hilaire, Old gazère, Oxygen, Hope 2000, The mechanics … Zouglou emerged in the ’90s as a musical genre and innovative Ivorian made by and for young people. If until that time singers like Bailly Spinto or Alpha Blondy much better known had managed to wear the colors of the Ivorian music, their songs were either inspired French folklore for some or all reggae for others. Rock, with such Gnahoré Jimmy at that time was also trying to get a place. Other traditional songs also drew them out of the game but this time music “Ivorian” was born, music is purely outcome of the cultural and Ivorian Abidjan.

Zulu music

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Mbube and Isicathamiya#

Mbube is both a song, originally released in the 1940s by Solomon Linda, and a genre of South African popular music that was inspired by it. “Mbube” was recorded in 1939 and became a major hit in the country. The song was in a traditional Zulu choral style, which soon came to the attention of American musicologist Alan Lomax, who brought to the song to folk singer Pete Seeger, then of The Weavers. They made the song a Top 15 American hit in 1952 (as “Wimoweh”), though creator Solomon Linda was not credited; later, The Kingston Trio released a cover of it. Later still, The Tokens turned the song into “The Lion Sleeps Tonight”, and it became a #1 American hit. The Durban-based Ladysmith Black Mambazo, formed by Joseph Shabalala in 1960, sings, among other styles, music in the mbube tradition inclusive of isicathamiya.