South Asia on Music Theory Print

Abhang

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Practise#

Marathi bhajans start with the naman (invocation of god), followed by the Roopancha Abhang (Portraying the physical beauty of god by personifying in the human form) and towards the end of the bhajan, spiritual and ethical messages are sung. Some famous musicians for Abhangs are Bhimsen Joshi, Kishori Amonkar, Sudhir Phadke, Suresh Wadkar, Ranjani, Gayatri, Aruna Sairam and Jitendra Abhisheki. It is a form of music performed by both classical and non-classical musicians. It has become integral in Bhajan concerts across India.

Agra gharana

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Etymology#

The Agra gharana takes its name from the city of Agra, which was the ancestral home of Vilayat Hussain Khan’s family. Many musical families resided in Agra ancestrally, such as the Mewati and Etawah traditions, but Vilayat Hussain Khan’s ancestors were more associated with the region amongst musicians.

Classical era#

Musicians of the Agra gharana claim descendence from the Nauharbani tradition of Dhrupad and legendary musician Nayak Gopal, a contemporary of Amir Khusrau. Nayak Gopal was acquired by Alauddin Khalji (1296 - 1316) as a court musician after the sack of Devgiri, around 1300 CE.

Ancient Tamil music

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Sangam music#

The Sangam age grammatical work Tolkappiyam mentions the various music pertaining to the five landscapes (thinai) of the Sangam literature. The five landscapes are associated with a particular mood of the poem and to give colour to these moods, each had a musical mood (pann), a melodic instrument (yaazh) and a percussion instrument (parai). For example, the neithal thinai, which dealt with the incidents around the seashore and the theme of elopement, had the musical mood of sevvazhi, Vilari yaazh as the musical instrument and the navayapambai for the percussion. Tolkappiyam also mentions the musical form known as Paattu Vannam and various types of songs like Asiriapattu, Neduven pattu, Adivarai, Seer, Ahaval Osai and Vellosai, which are classified on the basis of the musical quality, metrical structure etc. Most of the Sangam age poetry used one or more of these meters in their compositions. Poems of the Ettuthohai anthology, such as the Natrinai, Paripaatal and Kaliththokai are extensively musical in nature and use various panns to create the mood.

Asian Underground

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History#

In the 1980s, performances of folk music evolved into the bhangra music genre, which would later become more mainstream in the 1990s and 2000s. In the 1990s, Asian underground was considered hip and broke through to the mainstream, with artists such as Apache Indian and Cornershop frequently entering the UK charts, with the former’s “Boom Shack-A-Lak” (1993) appearing in many popular movies and the latter topping the charts with “Brimful of Asha” in 1998. The genre and other forms of South Asian music began to influence Europe’s pop mainstream as acts like Björk, Erasure, and Siouxsie and the Banshees all released singles or remixes featuring South Asian instrumentation. Talvin Singh, known for his innovative fusion of Indian classical music with drum and bass, subsequently won a Mercury Music Prize for his album OK in 1999. Asian underground music initially had only little influence on popular Indian music on the sub-continent, where it was usually branded under world music. While several Asian underground artists such as Apache Indian, Trickbaby and Bally Sagoo gained fame in India, it was only after Panjabi MC’s international hit “Mundian To Bach Ke” that British-Asian underground music could compete with domestic Indian artists like Shankar Mahadevan and Remo Fernandes, in addition to attracting worldwide audiences. It was followed by the globally successful Rishi Rich Project, consisting of producer Rishi Rich and artists Jay Sean, Mumzy Stranger, Juggy D and Veronica Mehta. They were one of the first groups to fuse Bhangra music with contemporary R&B and found tremendous success in India after their songs were featured in mainstream Bollywood soundtracks such as Boom, Kya Kool Hai Hum and Hum Tum. Since then, Asian underground music has exerted some influence on mainstream Indian pop music. Asian underground music has also influenced mainstream American hip hop, R&B and urban music in the 2000s, including artists such as Timbaland, Truth Hurts, Jay-Z, Snoop Dogg, Missy Elliott and Britney Spears. According to DJ Green Lantern, “Indian beats have now become a fixture on the R&B scene”. Music produced by the Asian Dub Foundation has also been featured on the soundtracks for popular video games such as Need For Speed Underground. Several former Asian underground artists such as M.I.A. and Jay Sean have gone on to achieve mainstream success in the North American music industry, where they produced mainstream songs such as “Paper Planes” and “Down” that have charted highly on (and in the latter case, topped) the Billboard Hot 100.

Baila music

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History#

After their arrival in 1505, the Portuguese began to convert the Sinhalese to Roman Catholicism, building their wealth and power through the spice and slave trade. As early as 1630, African Kaffirs were brought to Sri Lanka to work as slaves or soldiers. The Kaffirs were once described as a people ‘steeped in opium and witless with drink’. The Kaffirs’ carefree spirit inspired two music forms known as chicote and “kafrinha” infusing them with humour and satire. In 1894, Advocate Charles Matthew Fernando wrote that chicote as a “slow and stately” music, while “kafrinha” is “faster and more boisterous” and “with a peculiar jerky movement”. The word “kafrinha” itself comes from “kaf” (Kaffirs) and “rinha” which means “local lady”. These communities, mainly consisting of Portuguese traders, and the slaves that they had brought with them from the western coast of Africa, gradually combined with communities of native Sri Lankans. The musical style, now referred to as “Baila”, emerged from this cultural interchange. The violin, viola, acoustic guitar and the tambourine are the accompanying instruments. The viola, mandolin, rabana as well as the harmonium and tabla were used. The trumpet and military drums such as the snare and cymbals form part of the Papare bands popular throughout the coastal districts. In addition the tavil is used when accompanying religious processions such the Kataragama and the Devinuwara temple festival. The popular Baila singer Wally Bastiansz, who introduced the chorus to the traditional baila, is referred to as the “Father of Baila in Sri Lanka”. Nithi Kanagaratnam started Baila’s in Tamil in 1967 and was also the key figures in the development of the genre.

Baithak Gana

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Instruments#

In basic Baithak Gana there are three instruments, harmonium, dholak and the dhantal. The harmonium is a free-standing keyboard instrument similar to a reed organ. The dholak is a double headed drum that originated in Northern India, however, it is still used in the folk songs from Pakistan or Nepal. The last instrument that is used in this style of music is the dhantal which serves as the rhythmic piece of the ensemble, it consists of a long steel rod which is then “struck” by a U-formed piece, the origin of this device is unclear, as it may have been brought by the Indian indentured-laborers. The origin of the dhantal was formed from the use of a long steel rod with an almost-enclosed circle tip at the end used in the yoke of bull-driven carts that were used to transport sugar cane to guide the bulls. The U-shaped handle piece was derived from the use of a horse shoe.

Bandish

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Etymology#

The word bandish is derived from the Hindustani language, and literally means “binding together”.

Sections#

Sthāyī or Asthāyī: The initial, Rondo phrase or line of a fixed, melodic composition. Antarā: The second body phrase or line of a fixed, melodic composition. Sanchāri: The third body phrase or line of a fixed, melodic composition, seen more typically in Dhrupad bandishes. Aabhog: The fourth and concluding body phrase or line of a fixed, melodic composition, seen more typically in Dhrupad bandishes.

Bangladeshi heavy metal

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Antecedents: 1960s (Blues rock)#

Although there were no Bangladeshi metal bands formed in the 1960s and 1970s, some blues-based rock bands helped to emerge heavy rock in Bangladesh. Such a band was Windy Side of Care, formed in 1964, Dhaka, who became one of the earliest rock bands to form in Bangladesh. Mainly inspired by rock n’ roll artists like Elvis Presley, Cliff Richard and The Shadows, they mixed psychedelic rock, hard rock, blues rock with Bengali Classical music. Initially they did not intend to record their output but to play gigs. They used to jam at Shahbag Hotel. They jammed at high volume, so loud that they were told to turn down their volume by their grandfather. Their long instrumental jamming through high amps, powerful distortion and frequent whammy bar sets an early example of heavy rock in the Bangladeshi music scene. They did not become commercially successful but their early works and experiments indicate the major movement of heavy rock in Bangladesh. Although they are not as well known to modern fans, some of their records were recovered. They made a deal with EMI record labels to record an album in 1968.

Bangladeshi rock

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Origins#

The foundations of Bangladeshi rock started in the 1950s as a fusion of American rock and roll and Bengali classical music. In the 1960s, the Gramophone Company of Pakistan imported many LPs and singles from rock and roll artists like Cliff Richard and the Shadows, Elvis Presley, the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, the Beach Boys and the Hollies, which sold very well in Bangladesh. These artists were favored mostly by high school and college students. Drawing influences from 1950s and 1960s rock and roll artists, Bangladeshi rock bands formed. Hence, mid-1960s Bangladeshi rock music was influenced by and developed a sound that was very similar in beat to the British Invasion and, in the late 1960s, to that of psychedelic rock. There is much debate as to who was the first rock band in the country. Zinga, formed in 1963 in Chittagong, is an early contender, but their music resembled Adhunik more than rock and roll. The band introduced guitar, drums and piano, which made their music quite popular. It was also the first band to perform Tagore songs with guitar and piano on East Pakistan TV (now BTV). It has been argued by singer and journalist Elita Karim that Windy Side of Care was the first rock band of the country. Formed in 1964 in Dhaka, they started performing songs by Elvis and Cliff Richard in clubs and hotels. They were also the first band to advertise themselves as performing psychedelic rock. Their self-titled debut album also featured the raga rock song “Raag Bageshri”. In 1968, Zinga released their first song “Tomari Jiboney” which became very popular as it was aired on Shadhin Bangla Betar and East Pakistan TV. Before becoming a successful Dhallywood actor, Zafar Iqbal was a singer in the band The Rambling Stones, formed in 1966. Other popular rock bands of the 1960s included Ugly Phases, Fire in Ice and Time Ago Motion. None of these bands released any albums.

Baul

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Etymology#

The origin of the word Baul is debated. A common view is that it may be derived either from the Sanskrit word vātula, which means “mad, crazy”, or from vyākula, which means “impatiently eager, upset”. A recent scholarly research suggests that the Bauls may be descendants of a specific branch of Sufism referred to as ba’al. Another theory is that it comes from the Persian word Aul.

History#

The origin of Bauls is not known exactly, but the word “Baul” has appeared in Bengali texts as old as the 15th century. The word is found in the Chaitanya Bhagavata of Vrindavana Dasa Thakura as well as in the Chaitanya Charitamrita of Krishnadasa Kaviraja. Some scholars maintain that it is not clear when the word took its sectarian significance, as opposed to being a synonym for the word madcap, agitated. Bauls are a part of the culture of rural Bengal. Many attempts have been made to ascertain the origin of Bauls but there is wide disagreement among scholars. But they agree that no founders have been acknowledged either by Bauls themselves or others. Bauls are divided into several named groups, each following a named Hindu or Muslim guru. Besides, there are other communities who later identified or affiliated themselves with Bauls, like Darbesi, Nera and two sub-sects of Kartabhajas — Aul and Sai. The Bauls themselves attribute their lack of historical records to their reluctance to leave traces behind. Dr. Jeanne Openshaw writes that the music of the Bauls appears to have been passed down entirely in oral form until the end of the 19th century, when it was first transcribed by outside observers. There are two classes of Bauls: ascetic Bauls who reject family life and Bauls who live with their families. The bauls from India dress colourfully in orange and red and have a somewhat different way of getting together. In Bangladesh, Bauls mostly dress in white which symbolises purity. There is a big yearly gathering called Jaydeb Mela, taking place in Januari in Kenduli, near Bolpur, which attract bauls and followers in large numbers.

Bengali Rock music (India)

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Origin (1960s–1970s)#

Arunendu Das is widely credited with pioneering Modern Bengali music, introducing a fresh style of lyricism and a Western-influenced approach to songwriting, often crafted on the guitar. His innovative work laid the foundation for what would later evolve into Bengali Rock music. This musical revolution reached its pinnacle with Moheener Ghoraguli (also spelled Mohiner Ghoraguli), Kolkata’s iconic band, which is hailed as the first true Bengali Rock band. They are also recognized as India’s first Rock band, having pioneered the creation of original songs in vernacular languages, setting a groundbreaking precedent in the Indian music scene. Moheener Ghoraguli was formed in 1975 and played in many concerts. The band was inspired by Bob Dylan and many other western artists. Their music was a mixture of a wide variety of influences, including the Baul and folk traditions of Bengali and rock. Along with them, the Kolkata based rock group called High (formed 1974) consisting of late Dilip Balakrishnan (who was also part of the Great Bear rock band), Nondon Bagchi, Lew Hilt, Subhendu Chatterjee and Adi Irani started composing and performing original songs. A collection of the band’s recordings were released on the Saregama label in 2009.

Bhajan

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Etymology#

The Sanskrit word bhajan or bhajana is derived from the root , which means “divide, share, partake, participate, to belong to”. The word also connotes “attachment, devotion to, fondness for, homage, faith or love, worship, piety to something as a spiritual, religious principle or means of salvation”.

Historical roots#

In Hinduism, Bhajan and its Bhakti term, Kirtan, have roots in the ancient metrical and musical traditions of the Vedic era, particularly the Samaveda. The Samaveda Samhita is not meant to be read as a text, but sung as it is like a musical score sheet that must be heard. Other late Vedic texts mention the two scholars Shilalin (IAST: Śilālin) and Krishashva (IAST: Kṛśaśva), credited to be pioneers in the studies of ancient drama, singing and dance. The art schools of Shilalin and Krishashva may have been associated with the performance of Vedic rituals, which involved storytelling with embedded ethical values. The Vedas and Upanishads celebrate Nada-Brahman, where certain sounds are considered elemental, triggering emotional feelings without necessarily having a literal meaning, and this is deemed a sacred, liminal experience of the primeval ultimate reality and supreme truth. This supreme truth is considered as full of bliss and rasa (emotional taste) in the Hindu thought, and melodic sound is considered a part of human spiritual experience. Devotional music genres such as bhajan are part of a tradition that emerged from these roots. However, bhajans rose to prominence as a way of expressing fervent devotion to the divine, breaking down barriers of caste and society, during the Bhakti and Sant movements of medieval India (about the 6th to the 17th centuries). By writing verses in a variety of regional languages, saints and poets like Kabir, Mirabai, Tulsidas, and Surdas played a crucial part in popularizing bhajans and making them understandable to a larger audience. Their Bhajan lyrics emphasized the universality of divine love while praising the intimate connection between the believer and the deity.

Bhangra (music)

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Origins#

The roots of modern bhangra music date back to the Sikh Punjabi community in Punjab during the 1960s. An early pop music and modern recording group of this type of music in the United Kingdom was the Bhujhangy Group, founded by Tarlochan Singh Bilga, Balbir Singh Khanpur, Gurpal, Rajinder Dhona and Dalvir Kahanpuri in Birmingham in 1971. The Bhujhangy Group’s first major hit was “Bhabiye Akh Larr Gayee”. It was written by Tarlochan Singh Bilga in the early 1970s and was released on Birmingham’s Oriental Star Agencies label. This was the first bhangra song to combine traditional Asian music with modern Western instruments.

Bhatiali

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Bhavageete

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Kannada Bhavageete#

Kannada Bhavageete () draws from modern Kannada poetry. Notable modern Kannada poets whose works have been set to music include Kuvempu, D. R. Bendre, Gopalakrishna Adiga, K.S. Narasimhaswamy, G.S. Shivarudrappa, K. S. Nissar Ahmed, Raju Ananthaswami. In 1988, as part of Sugama Sangeetha troupe, Sunitha Ananthaswamy toured the United States and gave 28 concerts for the Kannada diaspora, along with her brother Raju and famous father Mysore Ananthaswamy.

Bhawaiya

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Etymology#

There are various explanations of the meaning of Bhawaiya. Low-lying land with shrubs and other vegetables are called bhawa. According to some researchers, Bhawaiya is derived from the word Bawaiya, which is subsequently derived from the word bao (breeze). The derivative of the word Bhawaiya is Bhav > Bhao + Iya = Bhawaiya; the meaning of this word is emotionally charged. According to Abbasuddin Ahmed, this music is like the random and pleasant wind blowing from North Bengal called Bhawaiya. According to a survey taken of performers of Bhawaiya (conducted by the Folk Cultural and Tribal Cultural Centre, Government of West Bengal), the name is derived from the word Bhao, which was transformed into Bhav. These songs carry a deep emotion of biraha or separation and loneliness.

Bhojpuri music

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History#

Origin of Bhojpuri music is quite unclear but the earliest form of Bhojpuri music song today is Nirguna was used to be sung by Kabir. Earlier on event occasions like Chhath or wedding these folks songs were used to be sung by people. When Bhojpuriyas were taken as plantation workers in British colonies, globalisation of Bhojpuri music took place and it extended its radius in counties like Mauritius, Netherlands and Caribbean Islands. It also mixed with the folk or modern music form of that countries. This led to the birth of distinct diaspora genres reflecting processes of adaptation and creolisation. Examples include Geet Gawai in Mauritius, where songs often blend Bhojpuri and Mauritian Creole and address new themes related to migration and island life while serving as a key means of language preservation. Baithak Gana in Suriname, and Chutney music in Trinidad and Tobago. Chutney music, in particular, evolved from Bhojpuri wedding songs performed primarily by women into a public genre incorporating Western instruments, Soca rhythms, and increasingly English lyrics alongside Bhojpuri, exemplified by pioneers like Sundar Popo.. The modern form of Bhojpuri music generated from Bollywood movies of 1950s. Later after the release of the first Bhojpuri Film Ganga Maiyya Tohe Piyari Chadhaibo the modernisation of Bhojpuri folk songs happened along with a generation of Modern Bhojpuri music.

Biraha

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History#

Biraha is believed to have originated among peasant and pastoral groups in North India during the Mughal period. Until the 1880s, it was mostly confined to villages and was sung while grazing cattle, for leisure at night, and at social ceremonies such as weddings and engagements. In the early 20th century, Bihari Lal Yadav played a pivotal role in transforming Biraha into an urban musical genre, particularly in Varanasi, where it was performed at temple festivals and annual religious celebrations.

Borgeet

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Lyrics#

The are written in the form of verse. The first pada, marked , works as a refrain and is repeated over the course of singing of the succeeding verses. In the last couplet, the name of the poet is generally mentioned. The structure of is said to model the songs of 8-10th century Charyapada. The first borgeet, mana meri rama-caranahi lagu, was composed by the Sankardeva at Badrikashrama during his first pilgrimage. The language he used for all his is Brajavali, an artificial Maithili-Assamese mix; though Madhavdeva used Brajavali very sparingly. Brajavali, with its preponderance of vowels and alliterative expressions, as considered ideal for lyrical compositions, and Sankardeva used it for and Ankia Naats. Sankardeva composed about two hundred and forty , but a fire destroyed them all and only about thirty four of them could be retrieved from memory. Sankardeva, much saddened by this loss, gave up writing and asked Madhavdeva to write them instead. Madhavdeva composed more than two hundred , which focus mainly on the child-Krishna.

Carnatic music

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Origin and history#

Carnatic music originated in Karnataka and was named after it, known as Karnāṭaka Saṁgīta which spread through Andhra and Tamil countries where it flourished. Like all art forms in Indian culture, Indian classical music is believed to be a divine art form that originated from the devas and devis (Hindu gods and goddesses), Ancient treatises also describe the connection of the origin of the svaras, or notes, to the sounds of animals and birds and man’s effort to simulate these sounds through a keen sense of observation and perception. The Samaveda, which is believed to have laid the foundation for Indian classical music, consists of hymns from the Rigveda, set to musical tunes that would be sung using three to seven musical notes during Vedic yajnas. References to Indian classical music are made in many ancient texts, including epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The Yajnavalkya Smriti states, “vīṇāvādana tattvajñaḥ śrutijātiviśāradaḥ tālajñaścāprayāsena mokṣamārgaṃ niyacchati” (“The one who is well versed in veena, one who has the knowledge of srutis and one who is adept in tala, attains liberation (moksha) without doubt”). Contemporray Carnatic music is based on musical concepts (including svara, raga, and tala) that were described in detail in several ancient works, particularly the Bharata’s Natya Shastra and Cilappatikaram by Ilango Adigal. Owing to Persian and Islamic influences in North India from the 12th century onwards, Indian classical music began to diverge into two distinct styles — Hindustani music and Carnatic music. By the 16th and 17th centuries, there was a clear demarcation between Carnatic and Hindustani music; Carnatic music remained relatively unaffected by Persian and Arabic influences. It was at this time that Carnatic music flourished in Vijayanagara, while the Vijayanagara Empire reached its greatest extent. Purandara Dasa, who is known as the “father (pitamaha) of Carnatic music”, formulated the system that is commonly used for the teaching of Carnatic music. Venkatamakhin invented and authored the formula for the melakarta system of raga classification in his Sanskrit work, the Chaturdandi Prakasika (1660 AD). Some of the royalty of the kingdoms of Mysore and Travancore were themselves noted composers and proficient in playing musical instruments, such as the veena, rudra veena, violin, ghatam, venu, mridangam, nadaswaram, and swarabat. Some famous court-musicians proficient in music were Veene Sheshanna (1852–1926) and Veene Subbanna (1861–1939), among others. During the late 19th century, the city of Madras (now known as Chennai) emerged as the locus for Carnatic music. With the dissolution of the erstwhile princely states and the Indian independence movement reaching its conclusion in 1947, Carnatic music went through a radical shift in patronage into an art of the masses with ticketed performances organised by private institutions called sabhās.

Chaiti

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Origin and cultural context#

Chaiti songs emerged from the folk traditions of the Bhojpur region encompassing Northern Jharkhand and Southern – western Bihar. The genre derives its name from the Hindu month of Chaitra (March-April), which marks the arrival of spring and is considered auspicious in Hindu tradition. This period coincides with several important festivals, particularly Ram Navami, celebrating the birth of Lord Rama, which explains the predominance of devotional themes in Chaiti compositions. The songs reflect the agricultural calendar and the joy associated with spring harvest. In rural areas, Chaiti was traditionally performed by folk singers during community gatherings, weddings, and religious festivals. Over time, the genre was adopted and refined by classical musicians, transforming it into a semi-classical form while retaining its folk essence.

Dapha music

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History#

Classic devotional music has been in existence in Nepal for more than a thousand years. The time period between 11th to 17th century saw an increase in literary activity in Kathmandu. The book was written as an appendix to Natya Shastra by the king of Bhaktapur Jagat Jyoti Malla and his minister Vanshamani Ojha. The book elaborates on Bharata Muni’s Natya Shastra and Abhinavagupta’s Abhinavabharati. This was followed by Gayanlochan, written during the reign of Jitamitra Malla. Gayanlochan focuses more on introduction to raga (and raginis), their characteristics, and performance. Various treatises on musical instruments used in Dapha such as Taal anukaranam, Mridanga anukaranam, Panchataal baaja etc. have also guided Dapha over centuries.

Dappankuthu

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Musical instruments#

A percussion instrument called parai in Tamil, without the jingles, is often used for dappankuthu or similar dance forms. Unlike normal tambourines, this requires a wooden stick to play. Telugu teenmaar uses daf drums, associated there with Siddi people. The urumee drum is also often used. A customised trumpet (called Nadaswaram locally) is also sometimes employed. The rhythm of the dappankuthu is often signified by a mix of beat patterns layered and flowing into one another. Other percussion instruments may be employed in dappankuthu. A similar instrument called TamaTe in Kannada resembling a Ganesh tambourine is also used for such dance forms in border areas such as M.M. Hills. The most-used time signature for dappankuthu songs is .

Deuda (genre)

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Etymology and history#

The word deuda means one and a half. The dance is called so because during performance the legs are moved in slanted manners. The song sung during the dance is also known as nyaauli after a bird. The dance is known as Dhacha in Jajarkot district. The dance form is said to be originated in the historical Khasa Kingdom in Sinja valley of Jumla district. The dance was then spread around the neighbouring regions of the valley.

Dhrupad

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History#

Dhrupad was first invented and sang in Gwalior by Man Singh. An illustrious Dhrupad school of music was firmly established at Gwalior. Muslim scholars also mentions a musical genre called Dhrupad in Ain-i-Akbari of Abu Fazl (1593). Extensive works attribute much of the material to musicians such as (Jagannath Kaviral, Gopala, Baiju Bawra, Haridas, Tansen, Mohamud and Bhagwant) in the court of Man Singh Tomar (fl. 1486–1516) of Gwalior which are well documented in Man Singh’s Mankutuhal. In these accounts from the Mughal court Dhrupad is portrayed as a musical form which is relatively new; and according to Sanyal, most sources agree that Drupad owes its origin to the court of Man Singh Tomar. Ravi Shankar states that the form developed from the prabandha and flourished starting in the fifteenth century in Gwalior. The 16th century Bhakti saint and court-musician of Gwalior Swami Haridas (also in the Nimbarka Sampradaya), was a well known dhrupad singer with songs dedicated to Krishna.He later joined as the court musician in the Mughal court with Tansen who was famous, among other counterparts, for his Dhrupad compositions. Dhrupad is ancient, and it has another genre of music called Khyal (Gwalior) (it has two parts Sthayi and Antara) evolved from it. Dhrupad is solemn music, uplifting and heroic, pure and spiritual. Khyal adds ornamental notes, shorter, moody and celebratory. Dhrupad probably obtained its name from dhruvapada mentioned in Natyashastra to denote structured songs. It is one of the core forms of classical music found all over the Indian subcontinent. The word comes from Dhruva which means immovable and permanent. It is spiritual, heroic, thoughtful, virtuous, embedding moral wisdom or solemn form of song-music combination. The Yugala Shataka of Shri Shribhatta in the Nimbarka Sampradaya, written in 1294 CE, contains Dhrupad lyrics. The ancient practice of dancing on Dhrupad has been reintroduced into recent times by Dr. Puru Dadheech. Dr Dadheech is India’s Kathak dancer to bring ‘Dhrupad’ on the formal Kathak stage and this composition in 28 matra.

Dhumpa sangita

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Creation#

The creation of the dhumpa is credited to Kabisurjya Baladeba Ratha, an Odia poet of the late 18th and early 19th century from the Ganjam district of Odisha. He designed the dhumpa as an instrument to accompany the recital of his lyrics and satires which are still called dhumpa geeta in rural areas of the Ganjam district.

Dhumpa#

The dhumpa consists of a cylindrical hollow bamboo, of six to seven feet in length, wrapped in colorful zari and fitted on a long wooden ply. It can be played by up to four persons simultaneously. It is traditionally played with sticks to produce a rhythmic beat, a technique that continues to be used by modern tribal musicians.

Dohori

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Filmi pop

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External links#

*PakGanay - Pakistani Film Music

Filmi qawwali

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Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan#

One of Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan’s famous Qawwali songs, “Tere Bin Nahin Lagda” (“I am restless without you”), appeared on two of his 1996 albums, Sorrows Vol. 69 and Sangam (as “Tere Bin Nahin Lagda Dil”), the latter a collaborative album with Indian lyricist Javed Akhtar. Lata Mangeshkar recorded a cover version called “Tere Bin Nahin Jeena” for Kachche Dhaage British-Indian producer Bally Sagoo released a remix of “Tere Bin Nahin Lagda”, which was later featured in the 2002 British film Bend It Like Beckham, starring Parminder Nagra and Keira Knightley. Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan’s music had a big impact on Bollywood music, inspiring numerous Indian musicians working in Bollywood, especially during the 1990s. For example, he inspired A. R. Rahman and Javed Akhtar, both of whom he collaborated with. However, there were many instances of Indian music directors plagiarising Khan’s music to produce hit filmi songs. Viju Shah’s hit song “Tu Cheez Badi Hai Mast Mast” in Mohra (1994) was plagiarised from Khan’s popular Qawwali song “Dam Mast Qalandar”.

Filmi-ghazal

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History#

The ghazal tradition of Urdu poetry was the basis for early Bollywood music, ever since the first Indian talkie film, Alam Ara (1931). In turn, filmi ghazals had roots in earlier Urdu Parsi theatre during the 19th to early 20th centuries. The ghazal was the dominant style of Indian film music since the 1930s up until the 1960s. By the 1980s, however, ghazals had become marginalized in film music. Reasons for the decline include Urdu ghazal poetry being gradually phased out from the Indian education system, lyricists targeting urban middle-class audiences, and the influence of Western and Latin American music. Music directors like Madan Mohan composed notable filmi-ghazals extensively for Muslim socials in the 1960s and the 1970s. The filmi-ghazal style experienced a revival in the early 1990s, sparked by the success of Nadeem–Shravan’s Aashiqui (1990). It had a big impact on Bollywood music, ushering in ghazal-type romantic music that dominated the early 1990s, with soundtracks such as Dil (1990), Saajan (1991), Phool Aur Kaante (1991) and Deewana (1992). However, the filmi ghazal style was once again marginalized by the early 21st century, as filmi songs became faster-paced along with greater Western and Latin influences. However, there have been a number of well-received filmi ghazal songs composed into the 2010s. A popular ghazal song from Aashiqui was “Dheere Dheere”, a cover version of which was later recorded by Yo Yo Honey Singh and released by T-Series in 2015.

Folk music of Punjab

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Rhythm#

The rhythm of Punjabi folk music is very simple. unlike the rhythms of Bhangra music which are generally complex

Melody#

Some songs like Heer and Mirza are sung using the traditional compositions.

Folk songs#

Punjab has folk songs on birth, marriage, funeral, death, love, separation, beauty, social and economical status, village lifestyle, food, nature, bravery, folklores and folktales, folk romances, folk and historical heroes, festivals and many more. The songs of professional castes of Punjab are also included in the folk songs. They can be divided into the following categories:

Folkhop

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Gaana

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History#

The term “gaanaa” is the colloquial word in Madras for “music”, which is of Hindostani origin. In literary Tamil, the word Gaanam (கானம்) means “tune”, and in modern Hindi–Urdu gānā means “song”. Kunangudi Masthan Sahib’s songs are still sung by gaana singers today. His Gaana tunes, which ruled the Tamil cinema space, earned him the recognition as the monarch of Gaana music. His Gaana songs encompassed all dimensions of music, blending religious and humanistic touches with themes of moral values, struggles, relationships, life principles, situational emotions, and philosophies on living. Even today, his songs remain popular and serve as reference material for many new composers and singers. Other song types include those that glorify local heroes. In gaana competitions, one singer questions another with a lyric, and the other answers with a lyric of their own. There are more than 500 performers in Chennai who earn their living from these events. Though the major gaana artists are men, and gaana songs are usually written from a male viewpoint, women gaana artists are seeing increasing recognition.

Garba (dance)

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Etymology#

The word garba comes from the Sanskrit word () for “womb” and so implies gestation or pregnancy — life. Folk dances in Gujarat are frequently performed to mark the first menstrual cycle or are performed to mark a marriage.

Dance, music and symbolism#

Traditional_Folk_dance_garba_dress.jpg Garba dressing: traditional dressing male is kediyu while the traditional female dress is chaniya choli. Gagra choli.jpg Young girl dressed in Ghagra choli. Modern garba is also heavily influenced by Dandiya Raas, a dance traditionally performed by men. The merger of these two dances has formed the high-energy dance that is seen today. Traditional garba music accompanying the dance involves the dhol and dholak (Indian drums), cymbals and shehnai (an Indian flute). The dance is a counterclockwise circle dance, alternatively participants can form concentric circles moving in opposite directions. The dance gathers speed as it progresses. Its main aspect consists of encircling an image or symbolic representation (like a clay pot), representing the shakti of goddess Durga. Garba dances honour the nine forms of Durga during the Navaratri (“Nine Nights”) festival and celebrates fertility and womanhood.

Geet (song)

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Context#

In Urdu poetry its roots are found in Dakhani Shairi whose most important feature is its Indian ethos with the strain being feminine, and the tone, delicate and elegant; Urdu Geets mainly speak about feminine anguish. Dakhini or Hindavi forms part of what is known as proto-Hindi Literature whose origin can be traced to a far earlier period that produced the great historical lyric Prithviraj Raso written by Chand Bardai. In Hindi poetry that has its roots in the Avadhi and the Brij Bhasha the Bhakti movement amalgamating the more ancient forms of Sanskrit and Persian poetry brought to the fore the wide range of rasas from love to heroism that later on in the Ritikal introduced erotism in a big way. Urdu geets are basically found written in the Hindustani language that took shape after the colonization of India by the British and had subsequently become the court language in Delhi and Avadh whereas Hindi geets have retained the flavour drawn from earlier compositions in Rajasthani dialect, Brij Bhasha and Maithali.

Ghazal

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Etymology and pronunciation#

The word ghazal originates from the Arabic word (ġazal). This genre of Arabic poetry is derived from (ḡazal) or (ḡazila) - To sweet-talk, to flirt, to display amorous gestures. The Arabic word ġazal is pronounced . In English, the word is pronounced or .

Poetic form#

The ghazal is a short poem consisting of rhyming couplets, called bayt or sher. Most ghazals have between seven and twelve bayts. For a poem to be considered a true ghazal, it must have no fewer than five couplets. Almost all ghazals confine themselves to less than fifteen couplets (poems that exceed this length are more accurately considered as qasidas). Ghazal couplets end with the same rhyming pattern and are expected to have the same meter. The ghazal’s uniqueness arises from its rhyme and refrain rules, referred to as the qafiya and radif respectively. A ghazal’s rhyming pattern may be described as AA BA CA DA, and so on. In its strictest structural form, a classical ghazal follows a number of rules: # Matla: The first sher in a ghazal is called the matla. Both lines of the matla must contain the qafiya and radif. The matla sets the tone of the ghazal, as well as its rhyming and refrain pattern. # Radif: The refrain word or phrase. Both lines of the matla and the second lines of all subsequent shers must end in the same refrain word called the radif. # Qafiya: The rhyming pattern. The radif is immediately preceded by words or phrases with the same end rhyme pattern, called the qafiya. # Maqta: The last couplet of the ghazal is called the maqta. It is common in ghazals for the poet’s nom de plume, known as takhallus to be featured in the maqta. The maqta is typically more personal than the other couplets in a ghazal. # Bahr: Each line of a ghazal must follow the same metrical pattern and syllabic (or morae) count. Unlike in a nazm, a ghazal’s couplets do not need a common theme or continuity. Each verse is self-contained and independent from the others, containing the complete expression of an idea. However, the verses all contain a thematic or tonal connection to each other, which may be highly allusive. Abdolhamid Ziaei considers the content of old Persian ghazal to include four elements: love, mysticism, education or excellence, and Qalandari.

Gombhira

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Gambhira mask#

The Gambhira dance is performed all over the Malda district of North Bengal during the festival of Chaitra Sankranti. The masks for Gambhira dance are made out of neem and fig trees by the local Bengali Sutradhar community. Sometimes they were also made the mask of clay.

Performance#

Gambhira songs frequently employ biting satire to mock and ridicule people, even those who are powerful and are in attendance.

Gunla Bajan

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Performances#

Societies based on locality or caste, in which membership is hereditary, organize Gunla Bajan performances. These groups follow an annual calendar of public performances. They also conduct music lessons and hold religious festivals, hymn singing sessions and feasts. The most important activity of the year is making daily pilgrimages during Gunla to Swayambhu and other Buddhist sites playing Gunla music. The main days during the holy month are Bahidyah Swahwanegu (बहीद्यः स्वःवनेगु), when devotees playing Gunla music visit sacred courtyards to view the images of Bahidyah (Dipankara Buddha) and paubha paintings put on display for the festival; and Nisala Chhawanegu (निसला छा:वनेगु), when offerings are made to Swayambhu and concerts are held at one’s neighborhoods. Gunla musical bands also lead processions during New Year’s Day of Nepal Sambat.

Hamd

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In the five pillars of Islam#

In the five pillars of Islam, the concept of Hamd is in each pillar to emphasize the importance of this word. In the first pillar Shahada, Muslims praise Allah for the blessings of being born Muslim and the belief in one god and his prophet. They also praise Him for giving them better health and wealth than those who suffer. The second pillar is Salat which is performing prayer, Muslims pray five times a day in order to keep remembering Allah and this allows a direct link between the worshipper and God. In each prayer Muslims recite Surah (passage), Al-Fatiha and choose the next surah they would like to recite, but Al-Fatiha must always be recited in order for prayers to be accepted. The third pillar is giving Zakat which is the act of giving a percentage of a Muslim’s income to certain classes of needy people; this allows Muslims to remember the poor and to never forget that everything belongs to Allah. Therefore they should be thankful for what they have at all times. Fasting is the fourth pillar, and this emphasizes the depth meaning of Hamd in the holy month of Ramadan. Muslims fast every year for a month from sunrise to sunset. This helps purify the worshiper’s soul and helps them gain true sympathy with the hungry in addition to remind them of their blessings and amounts of food they have. The fifth pillar is Hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca, the concept of Hamd is implemented in the action of Muslims visiting the Kaabah or House of God. In all five pillars in Islam, Hamd is used either by action or words. In all aspects of Islam, Hamd is used and can only be used for Allah alone. Hamd is the root word for AlHamdulillah which means praise to Allah. When a Muslim thanks or praises Allah for his favours and bounties it can be done by reciting the word or by act of prayer.

Hela Khayal Dangal

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History and heritage#

The history of Hela Khayal has not been properly documented as it was a folk art. It is certain that the tradition goes back almost three centuries in various places of Rajasthan. Dausa, Karauli, Sawai Madhopur, Alwar, Dhaulpur, the Tonk region and Jaipur have had a history of Hela Khayal. The Hela Khayal Dangals were generally planned to take place over two to three days. They were organized by villages at the community level. After harvesting, the peasants would have some money after selling the crops. All the families of villages would contribute in cash or kind for the event. The artists were sent out invitations. With collected funds, the organizing team of the village would arrange for the food and other necessities of the artists of the invited troupes. Most villages in Rajasthan have an open community area where people can sit and socialize. In the night, the artists would practice for their performances in this area. The practice sessions are called Raggi. Hela Khayal is not only considered a cultural heritage but also a confluence of Hadauti and Dhundhadi culture.

Hindustani classical music

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History#

Around the 12th-century, Hindustani classical music diverged from what eventually came to be identified as Carnatic classical music. The central notion in both systems is that of a melodic musical mode or raga, sung to a rhythmic cycle or tala. It is melodic music, with no concept of harmony. These principles were refined in the musical treatises Natya Shastra, by Bharata (2nd–3rd century CE), and Dattilam (probably 3rd–4th century CE). In medieval times, the melodic systems were fused with ideas from Persian music, particularly through the influence of Sufi composers like Amir Khusro, and later in the Mughal courts, noted composers such as Tansen flourished, along with religious groups like the Vaishnavites. Artists such as Dalptaram, Mirabai, Brahmanand Swami and Premanand Swami revitalized classical Hindustani music in the 16-18th century. After the 16th century, the singing styles diversified into different gharanas patronized in different princely courts. Around 1900, Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande consolidated the musical structures of Hindustani classical music, called ragas, into a few thaats based on their notes. This is a very flawed system but is somewhat useful as a heuristic. Distinguished musicians who are Hindu may be addressed as Pandit and those who are Muslim as Ustad. An aspect of Hindustani music going back to Sufi times is the tradition of religious neutrality: Muslim ustads may sing compositions in praise of Hindu deities, and Hindu pandits may sing similar Islamic compositions. Vishnu Digambar Paluskar in 1901 founded the Gandharva Mahavidyalaya, a school to impart formal training in Hindustani classical music with some historical Indian Music. This was a school open to all and one of the first in India to run on public support and donations, rather than royal patronage. Many students from the School’s early batches became respected musicians and teachers in North India. This brought respect to musicians, who were treated with disdain earlier. This also helped spread of Hindustani classical music to the masses from royal courts.

Hori (music)

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Themes and Significance#

Hori songs often depict the playful and romantic interactions between Krishna and Radha, key deities in Hindu mythology, whose stories are deeply embedded in the cultural fabric of the Braj region. The lyrics frequently allude to the throwing of colors and the joyous spirit of the festival. These compositions are mainly based on the love pranks of ‘Radha-Krishna’ known for its connection with Vrindavan, the native place of Lord Krishna.

Indian film music

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Origins#

In the earliest years of Indian cinema, film music was primarily influenced by Indian classical traditions, including Carnatic music and Hindustani classical music, as well as regional folk music. Over time, Western musical elements such as orchestration, harmony, and instrumentation became increasingly incorporated into film music, especially from the mid-20th century onward. Despite these changes, film soundtracks remain diverse, often blending multiple musical styles or returning to classical roots.

Indian folk music

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Chawtal#

Chawtal or Chowtal, aside from being the name of a “taal”/“tala” or meter in Hindustani classical music, is a form of folklore song of North India’s Bhojpuri region, sung by its native people during the Phagwa or Holi festival.

Tamang Selo#

Tamang Selo is a musical genre of the Tamang people and widely popular amongst the Nepali speaking community in India and around the world. It is usually accompanied by Tamang instruments, the Damphu, Madal and Tungna. although modern instruments have found their way into the compositions these days A Selo could be very catchy, attractive and lively or slow and melodious and is usually sung to express love, sorrow and stories of day-to-day life. Hira Devi Waiba is hailed as the pioneer of Nepali Folk songs and Tamang Selo. Her song ‘Chura ta Hoina Astura’ (चुरा त होइन अस्तुरा) is said to be the first Tamang Selo ever recorded. Waiba has sung nearly 300 songs in a career spanning 40 years. After Waiba’s death in 2011, her son Satya Aditya Waiba (producer) and Navneet Aditya Waiba (singer) collaborated and re-recorded her most iconic songs and released an album titled Ama Lai Shraddhanjali (आमालाई श्रद्धाञ्जली-Tribute to Mother).

Indian hip-hop

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1980s to early 2000s: Early beginnings#

Indian hip hop emerged in the mid-1980s, driven by American breakdancing films such as Wild Style (1982) and Beat Street (1984), gaining popularity in urban youth culture in major cities like Mumbai, Delhi, Chennai, Bangalore and Kolkata. By the late 1980s, Kolkata became a centre for hip hop dance workshops, while Mumbai, Delhi, Bangalore, and Chennai prioritised rap, leading to emergence of distinct regional hip hop scenes in local languages by the late 1990s. Apache Indian, a UK artist of Indian origin, was the earliest to make an impact on the UK charts with a series of hits during the 90s. This also paralleled the rise of Asian Underground in the UK. The inflow of hip hop into India is also attributed to certain clubs and DJs in New Delhi in the 90s. Baba Sehgal introduced a caricaturist version of Hindi rap in the 1990s with his albums. In 1992, his album Thanda Thanda Pani sold 100,000 copies in three and a half months and brought rap music to the Indian club scene, his cadence and flow particularly drawing inspiration from rapper Vanilla Ice. Hip hop in India developed slowly in the early 2000s, as earlier efforts by artists such as Baba Sehgal and Apache Indian failed to create substantial buzz, due to their styles being more rap–oriented than representative of the larger hip-hop scene. It was initially confined to urban areas with niche and expatriate audiences, but it gained prominence through MTV and the increasing worldwide impact of American rappers like Eminem, 50 Cent, and Jay-Z. The release and popularity of Bohemia’s second album Pesa Nasha Pyar in 2006, which also featured veteran American rapper Snoop Dogg, is considered as a turning point for Desi hip-hop, accompanying the growing role of NRIs and cultural intermediaries bringing fundamental hip hop elements like DJing, graffiti, and breakdancing into Indian masses. Around the same time, rapper Young Prozpekt (now KR$NA), started gaining traction with his conscious hip-hop songs, “Kaisa Mera Desh” and the “Lokpal Freestyle” on YouTube.

Indian pop

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History#

Pop music originated in Pakistan with the playback singer Ahmed Rushdi’s song "" in 1966 and has since then been adopted in India, Bangladesh, and lately Sri Lanka, and Nepal as a pioneering influence in their respective pop cultures. Following Rushdi’s success, Christian bands specialising in jazz started performing at various night clubs and hotel lobbies in various Southeast Asian cities. They would usually sing either famous American jazz hits or cover Rushdi’s songs. Pop music began gaining popularity across the Indian subcontinent in the early 1980s, with Pakistani singers Nazia and Zoheb Hassan forming a sibling duo whose records, produced by Biddu, sold as many as 60 million copies. Biddu himself previously had success in the Western world, where he was one of the first successful disco producers in the early 1970s, with hits such as the hugely popular “Kung Fu Fighting” (1974). The term Indipop was first used by the British-Indian fusion band Monsoon in their 1981 EP release on Steve Coe’s Indipop Records. Charanjit Singh’s Synthesizing: Ten Ragas to a Disco Beat (1982) anticipated the sound of acid house music, years before the genre arose in the Chicago house scene of the late 1980s, using the Roland TR-808 drum machine, TB-303 bass synthesizer, and Jupiter-8 synthesizer. In the late 2000s, Indi-pop music faced increasing competition from film music. Major pop singers stopped releasing albums and started singing for movies. Recently, Indian pop has taken an interesting turn with the “remixing” of songs from past Indian movie songs, new beats being added to them. In 2022, Jaimin Rajani, an Indian singer-songwriter, fused the sitar’s Indian classical sound with Western rock sensibilities in “Something Here to Stay,” a track from his debut album Cutting Loose. I-pop is a new and emerging music genre in India, blending Indian sounds with global pop influences. It features a mix of Hindi and regional languages, with themes ranging from romance to social issues. Gaining popularity among youth, I-pop reflects a shift from traditional Bollywood music, driven by independent artists and digital platforms.

Indian rock

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Early history#

India, in the 1950s and 1960s, had a record industry in the Gramophone Company of India (an EMI subsidiary), and LPs, EPs, and 45rpm records were freely available, including those of rock and roll acts from the US and Britain, but also of contemporary pioneering Indian rock bands. The president of the firm, Bhaskar Menon (who later became the President of Capitol Records in the United States) was the leading promoter of Western pop music in India. Later in 1970, Polydor, the German Label, began an India-based branch that distributed rock music locally. Of these mid-1960s to early 70s beat groups, as they were then termed, some of the most notable were the Mystiks from Bombay, the Beat-X from Madras, and The Cavaliers, Calcutta-16, and The Flintstones from Calcutta, who composed and played both early British Invasion influenced songs, and post-Sgt. Pepper hard rock. During this period from Delhi there were The Thunderbirds (featuring singer Ashwani Bali, Bass Guitarist Percy Singh), and WAFWOT (also with Ashwani on vocals, with organist Mark Spevak, from the U.S. and Bass Guitarist Percy Singh) These bands played regularly on the Indian university and college music circuits, and some had successful EP and LP releases. Also notable from this period (1964–1970) was the female R&B singer, Usha Iyer, now Usha Uthup, who had successful covers of “Jambalaya” and The Kingston Trio song, “Greenback Dollar”. A notable compilation LP titled “Simla Beat ‘70” was released during this period, from a contest of the same name. The winning bands recorded their versions of Western hard rock of the time. This tradition of covering Western rock would continue until the 1980s when it was more common to compose original songs. The rock n’ roll scene was also closely followed by Junior Statesman (or JS), a magazine started in 1965 contemporaneously with Rolling Stone magazine in the US and NME in the UK. Like Western rock bands at the time, Indian bands also began fusing rock with traditional Indian music from the mid-1960s onwards. A notable example of this is in the Cavaliers’ 1967 hit “Love is A Mango,” which incorporates sitar accompaniment alongside Beatlesque songwriting. However, filmi songs, those produced specifically for popular Bollywood films, often overshadowed the country’s budding rock scene, which otherwise contrasted from that within the film industry. Some of the more well known filmi songs (including styles such as funk rock, pop rock, psychedelic rock, raga rock, and soft rock) from Bollywood films include Mohammed Rafi’s “Jaan Pehechan Ho” in Gumnaam (1965), Kishore Kumar’s “O Saathi Re” in Muqaddar Ka Sikandar (1978), and Asha Bhosle songs such as “Dum Maro Dum” in Hare Rama Hare Krishna (1971), “Ae Naujawan Hai Sab” in Apradh (1972), and “Yeh Mera Dil Pyar Ka Diwana” in Don (1978).

Iroquois music

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Songs#

Social songs vary in length, verses and tempo depending on the song selection of the singers. All dances are done in a counter clockwise direction. A social is run by a “house keeper” or “pusher”. The job of the “house keepers” is to find lead singers and to know which songs that each lead singer knows. Their job also includes finding lead dancers for the upcoming dance. He then goes to the announcer with the information. All dances are introduced in the Iroquois language of the speaker. In some instances, instructions are provided to ensure that dances are carried out properly.

Jarigan

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Jazz in India

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History#

In India, jazz was probably first performed regularly in the metropoles Calcutta and Bombay in the early or middle 1920s. The era from the 1930s to the 1950s is often called as the golden age of jazz in India. It began with jazz musicians like Leon Abbey, Crickett Smith, Creighton Thompson, Ken Mac, Roy Butler, Teddy Weatherford (who recorded with Louis Armstrong), and Rudy Jackson who toured India to avoid the racial discrimination they faced in the United States. In the winter of 1935, Leon Abbey, a violinist from Minnesota brought the first 8-piece band to Bombay. In the 1930s, India’s freedom struggle against the British had reached a crucial stage. Bombay was a rising metropolis. There was also a great sense of political freedom, which was being transmitted into the arts. The ballrooms of five-star hotels and in the nightclubs of major Indian cities were jazz centres. As nationalism swept the country, these venues became the refuge of the European and Indian elite, the aristocrats, the moneyed and the public servants. During this period, musicians such as Chic Chocolate, Frank Fernand, Micky Correa, Rudy Cotton, Hal and Henry Green, Josic Menzie, Pamela McCarthy, and Chris Perry were at the forefront of the burgeoning jazz scene in Bombay, the nerve center of which was at the Taj Mahal hotel ballroom, which became the node of essential transmission of cultural messages between East and West. These musicians often played at five-star hotels, but they were regulars at the second level, at the Ambassador Starlight Roof Gardens, the Bristol Grill, the Dadar Catholic Institute, the Greens Hotel, the Ritz Roof Garden, the West End Hotel Roof Garden and the YMCA. Many of these musicians were Goans, because Goans learnt western music under Portuguese rule. Most of the Goan jazz musicians also worked in the Bollywood film industry and were responsible for the introduction of genres like jazz and swing to Hindi film music. Although jazz in India began as an entertainment for the elite, it made its way to the working class and into Hindi films. Frank Fernand and Anthony Gonsalves not only infused the sound of western music into Bollywood, but were also filled with India’s new-found nationalism and developed an authentic foundation to link the world of jazz with that of Indian classical music. The jazz fraternity was also a melting pot of people of different communities because there were Goans, Anglo-Indians and people from other communities like Rudy Cotton who was a Parsi.

Jhumar song

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Notable singer#

Dulal Manki, Jhumair singer from Assam
Mahavir Nayak, Theth Nagpuri singer

Jugni

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Description#

In spiritual poetry, Jugni means the spirit of life, or essence of life. Jugni is a style of singing that was first created by a famous Punjabi folk singer (late) Alam Lohar, who belonged to Achh, a small village of Gujrat in Punjab of British India, prior to the creation of Pakistan, Alam Lohar and after this singer, other singers have adopted this style. Alam Lohar is also credited with popularizing this poetry from early Sufi spiritual writings and then subsequently later on it was transformed by other singers as a female girl just like prefixes like Preeto. Alam Lohar started this genre of singing ‘Jugni’ during his early performances around pre-partition (1947), he sang Jugni throughout his early years of singing which was in the 1930s when he was a child star (started singing at a very young age) and many of his songs were not recorded at that time due to limited recording facilities within British India (pre-partition). His LP record titled ‘Jugni’ was recorded later on in his career and became a gold disc LP in 1965. Alam Lohar has also recorded multiple variations of Jugni and some of this is still available to hear on many LP records and visible on black and white TV recordings even available on YouTube to view. Other singers throughout the world have been greatly influenced by the Jugni recordings that Alam Lohar performed including his son Arif Lohar. Much of early Jugni writing is spiritual in nature and relates to one’s understanding of the world and one’s relationship with God. Many poet philosophers have used the Jugni device, which is in the public domain, to make social, political or philosophical, often mildly subversive, commentary. Jugni invokes the name of God (often using the word “Saeen”, the vernacular word for Lord). A kernel of truth is an essential and integral part of every Jugni composition and there is a theory that Alam Lohar introduced and was influenced in relaying this term from reading old Sufi writings. Noting, Jugni is also an old Muslim worship tool, majorly named as TASBIH, a series of 21, 33, 51 or 101 pearls, which is used by SUFI SAINTS for practicing the holy words. Mainly it is made by white pearls and white thread and is known to be holy. Afterward, JUGNI has become an ornament for Punjabi Women. The narrative style relies on Jugni landing up unexpectedly in diverse places and, wide-eyed, learning something new. Jugni makes her comments in three or four well written verses which may or may not rhyme but can always be sung in a rudimentary Punjabi folk style. The object could be a city, a state, a marketplace, a school, a religious place or a saloon, Jugni’s non-malicious commentary catches the essence of the place and produces in the listener a chuckle and sometimes a lump in the throat. The Indian artist to make a mark was Asa Singh Mastana. Also, Kuldeep Manak, born Latif Mohammad, has made notable Jugni contributions. Apart from that every other pop or folk singer from Harbhajan Mann, Arif Lohar, Gurdas Maan, Gurmeet Bawa to Rabbi Shergill has had his Jugni moment. Bollywood movie Oye Lucky, Lucky Oye has at least three songs that use the word Jugni. The song was sung by Des Raj Lachkani (basically a dadi singer), Lachkani is a village near Patiala, India. In Pakistan, Jugni was popularized by the late folk music singer Alam Lohar. He received a gold disc LP for his Jugni in 1965. After that Saleem Javed and Arif Lohar, Alam Lohar’s son, among others, have kept the tradition alive. Arif has brought in a more contemporary touch by incorporating modern vibes and rock influence in his versions of Jugni with Mukhtar Sahota (notably in his album “21st century Jugni” ). In popular Pakistani culture Alamgir’s Jugni is often the most-commonly recognized, which, in the mid-80’s, encouraged young college students, most notably Saad Zahur, an architecture student at Lahore’s NCA, who popularized the song with their own renditions. Arif Lohar has currently sang it for Coke Studio in Pakistan along with Meesha Shafi, a popular Pakistani youth, a version that will help this iconic song to further live on and on. This version of Jugni has crossed 110 million views and is the most popular Punjabi video on YouTube.

Kafi

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Kafi singing#

In musical terms, kafi refers to the genre of Punjabi and Sindhi classical music which utilizes the verses of kafi poets such as Bulleh Shah and Shah Hussain. Kafi music is devotional music, normally associated with the Sufi orders or Tariqah of Islam in South Asia, and was sung by dervishes or fakirs (Islamic mendicants), solo or in groups, as an offering to their murshid, spiritual guide. It is characterized by a devotional intensity in its delivery, and as such overlaps considerably with the Qawwali genre. Just like Qawwali, its performances often took place at the dargahs (mausoleums) of various Sufi saints in the region. However, unlike Qawwali, the musical arrangement is much simpler and may only include one harmonium, one tabla, one dholak and a single vocalist. The emphasis remains on the words rather than the music itself, since the central aim of Kafi music is to convey the essence of the mystical lyrics. The central verse is often repeated. There are no fixed styles of singing of Kafi. Traditionally dervishes in Sindh used instruments like yaktaro, a one-stringed plucked instrument, and wooden clappers, chappars, though many contemporary singers have chosen their own variations.

Kajari

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Kavigan

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Form#

Kavigan is normally sung by two groups. Each group is led by a or . The accompanying singers called often repeat what the leader said. A kavigan programme starts with bandana (evocation) or gurudever geet (song of the sect patron). The bandana can be directed to or be in praise of Saraswati, Ganesh, people, and the audience, as deemed fit by a particular . This is followed by Radha–Krishna related song, some call it agamani. Then songs on four subjects are sung: , , and . deals with the love-songs related to Radha-Krishna. Biraha is about the mortal pang of separation of common human beings. Kheur is mainly about gods and goddesses, but often includes mild slangs. Finally, the competitive part starts. It mainly consists of the Lahar, where the competitors personally attack each other, musico-verbally.

Kavishari

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History#

Kavishari was started in the Malwa region of Punjab by the 10th Sikh Guru, Guru Gobind Singh Sahib, as a sung form of “Chhand-Baddh” kavita (poetry). There was a need of a particular singing style or genre that could energize the Sikh soldiers. So the Kavishari was mostly sung about bravery, known as Veer Ras, one of the nine Ras’ (‘flavour’/‘subgenre’) of the genre. The term kavishar is made of two words: kavi means ‘singer’, and shayar means ‘writer’ or ‘poet’. As such, “kavishar” means ‘person who writes and sings (poetry)’.

Khyal

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Etymology#

() is an Urdu word of Arabic origin which means “imagination, thought, ideation, meditation, reflection”. Hence khyal connotes the idea of a song that is imaginative and creative in either its nature or execution. The word entered India through the medium of the Persian language. Just as the word reflects ideas of imagination and imaginative composition, the musical form is imaginative in conception, artistic and decorative in execution and romantic in appeal.

Kiowa music

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Development and genres#

Historically, Kiowa music has been strongly focused on dancing, such the gourd dance. Mock sham battles, purifying sweat baths, erecting the center cottonwood pole, building the arbor, bringing the brush in, spreading sand on the ground, building the sacred Taimé altar, unveiling the Taimé by the Taimé keeper, distribution of shields, ritual body painting, leading in the different pledge makers/dancers by their clans accompanied by their painters, prayer, speeches, dancing, eagle whistle blowing, visions and feasting by the pledge makers’/dancers’ families were all ceremonial elements integral to the four-day k’aw-tow. Modern songs called Brush Dance songs and Buffalo Dance songs commemorate the now outlawed Kiowa Sun Dance. Kiowa music, one of the most heavily recorded tribes, is part of the larger Southern Plains Indian music genre. The Kiowa created their flag song to honor warriors of the past, present and their people, their memorial song and the dance bustle in the O-Ho-Mah Lodge warrior society from the Omaha tribe. The modern gourd dance adheres to Kiowa protocol and social mores with the majority of songs composed and/or handed down from Kiowa song makers. The Smithsonian Institution made recordings during the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s that are close to 19th century music, while Indian House Records and Canyon Records began commercial recording in the 1960s and 1970s and Soundchief began recording in the 1940s. Early 20th Century Kiowa recordings are housed in the Library of Congress’s Archive of Folk Culture, Indiana University American Indian Studies Research Institute, The Oklahoma Historical Society’s Oklahoma History Center, and the Kiowa Tribal Museum. Many Kiowa elders also retain a vast knowledge of traditional songs. New Kiowa songs continue to be composed each year for new events, organizations and individuals. Much of Kiowa music is related to the warrior societies of the 20th century. Society songs of the 19th century have been integrated into existing music. The Kiowas significant contributions to world music include the maintenance of cultural institutions and practices, such as the Black Leggings Society, the Oh-Ho-Mah Lodge, the Kiowa Gourd Clan, Peyote songs, War Journey songs, also known as 49 songs, war mother songs, victory or scalp dance songs, handgame songs, and hymns.

Kirana gharana

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Background#

Awareness about the Kirana Gharana grew with the rising status of Beenkar Bande Ali Khan in the Gwalior Court and Indore Court in the mid-19th Century. Due to his fame, members of his extended family, such as vocalists Abdul Karim Khan and Abdul Wahid Khan, began describing themselves as from the same gharana. The Kirana Gharana takes its name from the birth place of Bande Ali Khan, Kairana, though the family is said to originate from Saharanpur District. Bande Ali Khan is arguably the most influential Hindustani Classical instrumentalist of the 19th Century. In its initial decades, the importance of Kirana Gharana was derived from his status. Since, the fame of Abdul Karim Khan and Abdul Wahid Khan extended the gharana’s name which came to be associated with singing.

Kirtan

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Etymology and nomenclature#

The term kirtana (Devanagari: कीर्तन) generally means “telling, narrating, describing, enumerating, reporting”. The Sanskrit root of kirtan is kirt (). The term is found in the Samhitas, the Brahmanas, and other Vedic literature, as well as the Vedanga and Sutras literature. Kirt, according to Monier-Williams, contextually means “to mention, make mention of, tell, name, call, recite, repeat, relate, declare, communicate, commemorate, celebrate, praise, glorify”. The term kirtan is found as anukirtan (or anukrti, anukarana, literally “retelling”) in the context of a Yajna (Vedic ritual offering), which meant a dual recitation of Vedic hymns in a dialogue style that was part of a ritual dramatic performance. The Sanskrit verses in the Shatapatha Brahmana (chapter 13.2, c. 800–700 BCE), for example, are written in the form of a riddle play between two actors. According to Louis Renou, in this text, “the Vedic sacrifice (yajna) is presented as a kind of drama, with its actors, its dialogues, its portion to be set to music, its interludes, and its climaxes.” Generally speaking, kirtan, sometimes called sankirtana (literally, “collective performance”), is a kind of collective chanting or musical conversation. As a genre of religious performance art, it developed in the Indian bhakti movements as a devotional religious practice (i.e. bhakti yoga). But it is a heterogeneous practice that varies regionally, according to Christian Novetzke, and includes varying mixtures of musical instruments, dance, oration, theatre, audience participation, and moral narration. In Maharashtra for example, Novetzke says, a kirtan is a call-and-response style performance, ranging from devotional dancing and singing by a lead singer and audience to an “intricate scholarly treatise, a social commentary or a philosophical/linguistic exposition” that includes narration, allegory, humor, erudition and entertainment—all an aesthetic part of ranga (beauty, color) of the kirtan. Vaishnava temples in Assam and northeastern Indian have large worship halls called kirtan ghar—a name derived from their being used for congregational singing and performance arts. Kirtan is also sometimes called harinam (Sanskrit: harināma) in some Vaishnava traditions, which means " chanting the names of God (Hari)." In regional languages, kirtan is scripted as ; Nepali and ; ; ; / ; Sindhi: / ; ; .

Klasik

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References#

Baily, John. “Music of Afghanistan: Professional Musicians in the City of Herat”. 1988. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Baily, John. “The naghma-ye kashal of Afghanistan”. 1997. British Journal of Ethnomusicology, Vol. 6, pp 117–163.
Baily, John. “A System of Modes Used in the Urban Music of Afghanistan”. Ethnomusicology, Vol. 25, No 1, pp 1–39.
Doubleday, Veronica. “Red Light at the Crossroads”. 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 2: Latin & North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific, pp 3–8. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books.

Konnakol

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Usage#

Musicians from a variety of traditions have found konnakol useful in their practice. Prominent among these is John McLaughlin, who led the Mahavishnu Orchestra and has long used konnakol as a compositional aid. V. Selvaganesh, who plays alongside McLaughlin in the group Remember Shakti, and Ranjit Barot, who plays with McLaughlin in the group 4th Dimension, are other noted konnakol virtuosos. A few of the prominent names performing konnakol are B K Chandramouli, Dr T K Murthy, B C Manjunath, Somashekhar Jois, and Mattias ‘IA’ Eklundh of Freak Kitchen. Danish musician Henrik Andersen wrote the book Shortcut To Nirvana (2005) and the DVD Learn Konnakol (2014). Andersen was a student of Trilok Gurtu (India) and Pete Lockett (UK). Trumpeter, composer, arranger, and bandleader Don Ellis also utilized the technique extensively in his own compositions and arrangements for his own big band. Ellis would use konnakol in live performance having the members of his entire orchestra actually do the vocalizations of rhythms most notably on a piece entitled “Open Wide”, that he performed at the 1977 Montreux Jazz Festival. Subash Chandran’s disciple Dr Joel, who teaches konnakol in the UK, is noted for incorporating it into rock and Western classical music, notably in a concerto commissioned in 2007 by the viola soloist Rivka Golani. The trio J G Laya (Chandran, Sri Thetakudi Harihara Vinayakram, and Dr Joel) showcased the konnakol of Chandran and helped the previously fading art form return to prominence in the 1980s. Chandran released an instructional DVD on konnakol in 2007. McLaughlin and Selvaganesh also released an instructional DVD on konnakol in 2007. Jazz saxophonist, konnakol artist, and composer Arun Luthra incorporates konnakol and Carnatic music rhythms (as well as Hindustani classical music rhythms) in his work. More recently, drummer Steve Smith has also incorporated konnakol in his performances with vital information and his clinics. In 2022 Taladiddle written by Claudio Fischer and Claus Hessler was published a book comparing and contrasting konnakol to rudiments. Konnakol should not be confused with the practice in Hindustani music (the classical music of northern India) of speaking tabla “bols”, which indicate the finger placement to be used by a percussionist. By contrast, konnakol syllables are aimed at optimising vocal performance, and vastly outnumber any commonly used finger placements on mridangam or any other hand percussion instrument. Further, all the differences between Carnatic and north Indian rhythms apply equally to konnakol and tabla bols. The artist improvises within a structure that interrelates with the raga being played and within the talam preferred in the compositions. In mridangam, kanjira, or ghatam, the percussion is limited to physical characteristics of their structure and construction: the resonance of skin over jackfruit wood, clay shells, or clay pots. The human voice has a direct and dramatic way of expressing the percussive aspects in music directly. Trichy Shri R Thayumanavar gave a rebirth to konnakol. His disciple Andankoil AVS Sundararajan, a vocal and miruthangam Vidwan, is a konnakol expert, as is Mridangam Vidwan Shri T. S. Nandakumar.

Ladishah

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History#

Ladishah genre originally emerged as a popular lyrics narrating with a combination of situational ballad, humorous and melody tone in Jammu and Kashmir princely state around eighteenth or nineteenth century. It has its roots in the culture of Kashmir written and narrated by the same entertainer. Literary associated with Kashmiri literature, it was initially used to criticise the rulers engaged in human rights abuse. Some local people believe that ladishah songs were used to be sung during the harvest season particularly exercised by nomads to get food in return. Over the times with modern music revolution, the genre became less popular or almost unknown to the people, and subsequently it declined due to Kashmir conflict, a war that triggered unrest since the military conflict started in the region.

Lavani

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History Vocabulary#

According to a tradition, the word Lavani is derived from the word ’ Lavanya which means ‘beauty’.

Origin#

Lavani dance originated from Maharashtra in the 18th and 19th century. Lavani dancers were patronised by Maratha Lords and Kings. Lavani dance was generally performed by Dhangars or Shepherd living in Solapur, Maharashtra.

History and genres#

Traditionally, this genre of folk dance deals with different and varied subject matters such as society, religion and politics. The songs in ‘Lavani’ are mostly emotional in sentiment and the dialogues tend to be pungent in socio-political satire. Originally, it was used as a form of entertainment and morale booster to the tired soldiers. Lavani Songs, which are sung along with dance, are usually naughty and erotic in nature. It is believed their origin is in the Prakrit Gathas collected by Hala. The Nirguni Lavani (philosophical) and the Shringari Lavani (sensual) are the two types. The devotional music of the Nirguni sect is popular all over Malwa. Lavani developed into two distinct performances, namely Phadachi Lavani and Baithakichi Lavani. The Lavani sung and enacted in a public performance before a large audience in a theatrical atmosphere is called Phadachi Lavani and all the Tamasha Troupe (phad) in Maharashtra present it as one of its main sections. Lavani poet Bashir Momin Kavathekar had written Lavani’s extensively for Tamasha Troups of Maharashtra during the late twentieth century. When the Lavani is sung in a closed chamber for a private and select audience by a girl sitting before the audience, it came to be known as Baithakichi Lavani. It is a kind of Mujra strictly performed for men and away from the village with no access for ladies or families to watch. The songs were written in sexually explicit double meaning.

Liwa (music)

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References#

https://web.archive.org/web/20080203142429/http://www.arab.net/uae/ue_music.htm
http://www.alshindagah.com/may/dances.htm
Africans in the Persian Gulf
Video of Liwa in Kuwait
(en) Poul Rovsing Olsen, “La Musique Africaine dans le Golfe Persique”, Journal of the International Folk Music Council, Vol. 19, (1967), pp. 28–36
(fr) Maho Sebiane, « Le statut socio-économique de la pratique musicale aux Émirats arabes unis : la tradition du leiwah à Dubai », Chroniques yéménites, 14, Numéro 14, 2007 .
(fr) Maho Sebiane, “Entre l’Afrique et l’Arabie : les esprits de possession sawahili et leurs frontières”, Journal des africanistes, 84-2 2014, 48-79.
(en) Maho Sebiane, Beyond the leiwah of Eastern Arabia Structure of a possession rite in the longue durée, Música em Contexto, Brasília Nº. 1 (2017): 13-44
(fr) Maho Sebiane “Nuisances et chaos des Vents. Expressions de l’agressivité dans un rite de possession en Arabie orientale”, Cahiers d’ethnomusicologie 33, 2020: 113-131
Liwa and Tanbura from Africa to Bahrain, Part 2, Al Waqt newspaper, 21 Feb 2009

Maithili music

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Religion and Culture#

It is the folksong of Bhilini, one of the many Maithili Music classics, that influenced Gautam, the Buddha, to draw the essence of his all-time great philosophy -Madhyama marg. As a result, Mithila has been established as a great cultural center and Vidya-kshetra. Its cultural, mainly scholastician, history dates back to millenniums. Its pristine glory is recorded in the Vedas and the Satpath Brahmana. Maithili Music is said to be the song of the gods. Many of the songs are used as way to pray to the gods. Songs relating to agriculture and Devotional songs are the two main type songs which can see as prayers to the God above. The songs describe the outstanding traits of the gods and goddesses and sometimes the traits of their worshipers. These songs called gosaunik git or gosaun . The Maithili region lies in part of North India and Nepal which is wet and lush green as it is covered with bamboo structures, paddy fields and ponds . It is said to look like the resting place of goddess Kali and Durga which are prominent in the worship rites of the masses. There many songs which are based on the surrounding are as if describing the beauty and the grandeur of the goddesses resting place Furthermore, In South Asia where marriages for women are a religious event Maithili song are played to a great extent. Women most often classify wedding songs according to the name of the rituals, however generally the auspicious day of marriage begins with the Suhag song and concludes with the samdaun. However, singing many songs during weddings might be a bit problematic now due to the fact that nowadays people waste less time and pay less money for their weddings. Furthermore, there are some Maithili music that describe the hardships faced by woman in the Maithili region. Maithili women, located in south-eastern Nepal, are pitted against one another in their pursuit of security and resources in the context of patrilineal formations. There are many folksongs that talk about the injustice of woman at the hands of men and their many of the folksongs that talk about women thinking of counter measures and alternate ways to survive in the world dominated by men. This is also the time when themes of feminism started to appear in folksongs . Maithili Music has been based around the daily lives of normal men. As a result, the lyrics include a lot of references of objects, gods, seasons and surrounding area of Maithili. These references can help to understand the beauty of the region and can also tell us a lot about the society of the past. These references, further, have also been used as metaphors to comment on the society of the past and its norms. Maithili folksongs include a lot of songs about gods as previously mentioned, but they also have a lot of songs relating to seasons and agriculture. Songs whose themes are based around the rainy or the monsoon season are associated with farmers praying to the gods for favourable climate to cultivate. There are also many songs related to farmers asking for a good harvest. There are many themes relating to good harvest because agriculture was one of the main occupations in the past as well in the present. In Maithili music even the reference of nature helps in bringing out the meaning of the music’s lyrics. In the Maithili region of Nepal the use of pond signifies and refers to a woman’s perspective and knowledge of worldly matters .

Mappila songs

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History#

Mappila songs have been in circulation for over seven centuries, with the first dated work Muhyidheen Mala attributed to Qadi Muhammad in 1607 AD. Thereafter a large number of literary materials were produced in this medium; one authority has calculated that of these more than 1600 items, complete or fragmentary, were known by 1976. Over the centuries, various types of Mappila Pattu were composed, in accordance with the religious and political surroundings in the lives of the Mappilas of Malabar. The early centuries were primarily based on devotional works, while the colonial era was marked by the battle song genre called Padappattu. Various other categories also grew during the centuries with subjects ranging from romantic ballads and marriage songs to philosophical ideas, sea journeys and even flood ordeals.

Marfa (music)

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Origin#

Marfa is a Yemeni Arabic word used for the kettledrum. Due to the Hadhrami people’s influence on the culture of the Ethiopian Siddis, the word marfa became a symbol of the music played using the kettledrum. Kettledrums are replaced with Handi kettledrums

Forms#

Marfa music is created from three different musical rhythmic beats also called teen maar taal. The music is performed only by men, whereas dances and jiggling are common among both men and women. Popular marfa rhythms include: * sewari * bamb sheklah * ya abu bakar-ya abu salah * salaam almukallah * jumbali zimbali * benazeer benazeer * ahlan wasahlan

Music of Bangladesh

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Ragapradhan Gaan#

Bangladeshi classical music is based on modes called ragas. As early as the Charyagiti (9th century), ragas have been used in Bengali music. Jaydev’s Gitagovindam, Padavali Kirtan, Mangal Giti, Shyamasangit, Tappa, Brahma Sangeet, and Tagore songs have all drawn inspiration from ragas. The use of North Indian ragas in Bengali songs began in the 18th century. This trend gained momentum during the 19th and 20th centuries. Pioneers included Ramnidhi Gupta, Kali Mirza, Raghunath Roy, and Ramshanker Bhattacharya, the founder of the Bishnupur Gharana. Nawab Wajid Ali Shah of Lucknow played an important role in this movement. After being dethroned by the British Empire in 1856 and exiled to Metiabruz, Kolkata, he patronized music—especially dhrupad, tappa, thumri, and kheyal—during his 30-year exile, leaving a lasting impact on Bangladeshi music. Most traditional Bengali music is based on various interpretations of Hindustani classical music. Rabindranath Tagore deeply appreciated North Indian ragas and successfully incorporated them into his songs. He was followed by Dwijendralal Roy, Rajanikanta Sen, and Atulprasad Sen.

Music of Bengal

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History#

The earliest music in Bengal was influenced by Sanskrit chants, and evolved under the influence of Vaishnav poetry such as the 13th-century Gitagovindam by Jayadeva, whose work continues to be sung in many eastern Hindu temples. The Middle Ages saw a mixture of Hindu and Islamic trends when the musical tradition was formalized under the patronage of Sultan and Nawabs and the powerful landlords Baro Bhuiyans. The earliest record of Sufism in Bengal goes back to 11th century AD in connection with the continuation of Sufism in northern India. Shah Sultan Rumi was the first Sufi to come to Bengal, when he came to Mymensingh in 1053 AD.Sufism not only helped in the spread of Islam in Bengal, but also contributed to the eventual creation of a Muslim society in Bangladesh. Apart from the religiosity, the influence of the Sufis became attached to popular Bengali culture by the confluence of the murshidi, marfati and baul songs, and gazir gan.

Music of Kerala

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Introduction#

The state of Kerala has a very extensive and rich musical tradition. The songs formed contain remnants of Malayalam literature dating back to the ninth century CE. The significance of folk poetry and music was established through the Malayalam language. The music in this area was developed in a number of different directions. These branches comprised classical Carnatic music as well as popular music from albums, movies, and other genres. Chenda Melam is renowned for his music. Kerala music has a complex history distinct from Malayalam poetry, with which it is often associated. Though it is often driven by poetry, Kerala also has its roots in Carnatic music. Songs have always been a significant part of early Malayalam literature dating back to the 9th century CE. The significance of music in Kerala’s culture can be deduced from the musical poetry that developed in the Malayalam language long before prose. As music evolved in the region, various branches emerged from it

Music of Punjab

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Classical music#

Patiala Gharana
Sham Chaurasia gharana
Punjab Gharana

Instruments#

During the past century, Punjabi folk musicians used 87 instruments, 55 of which are still used today. It is notable that the instruments used today serve a function that exceeds musical necessity in that they are closely tied to Punjabi culture and heritage. The dhol, for example, continues to be popular because it is important to special proceedings such as weddings and sporting events. Additionally, the popularity of certain instruments encourages people to continue learning to play them; therefore, maintaining their relevance in Punjabi events. Terrorist events during the late 1980s threatened the existence of Punjabi folk music and the instruments that accompanied this genre. With several notable artists being killed and major festivals being cancelled there was not a space for folk music to exist. The boom of technology also threatened folk music by creating a new genre of music known as Punjabi Pop, which mixed electronic and folk music. The following instruments are the most popular within Punjabi music. Algoza: The algoza “consists of two joined beak flutes, one for melody, the second for drone” and the “flutes are either tied together or may be held together loosely with the hands”. A continuous flow of air is necessary as the player blows into the two flutes simultaneously. Dhol: Resembles much of the construction of a drum. It is a two-sided drum of mango wood, 48 cm long and 38 cm wide and is played using two slightly curved sticks. It is thought to have a much more significant value to the artisans such as the blacksmiths or the cobblers. It is usually played during neutral occasions and mostly by only men. Chimta: The chimta are similar to tongs and consist of 122 cm long iron strip that is bent in half and adorned with an iron ring set. The small metal discs called chaene are “attached on the inner side of the tongs so as to strike against each other like small cymbals when the arms of the chimta are struck”. Dholki: The dholki is a smaller, feminine version of the dhol. It accompanies singing, dances and religious activities. Kato: This a stick with a squirrel (galad) on top. Attached to the head of the squirrel is a cord, which jerks its head up, “producing a sharp click”. At the same time, bells attached to its tail jingles. Dhad: The Dhad has the hourglass shape of the damroo and but is slightly larger. The body of this instrument is made from mango, mulberry or sheesham wood and the heads are covered in goatskin held taut with cords. The fingers are used to tap and make sounds that can vary based on how tightly or loosely the strings are maintained.

Music of Rajasthan

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List of Rajasthani folk singers#

One of the most famous Rajasthani Maand singers is Allah Jilai Bai of the Bikaner Gharana. *Allah Jilai Bai *Kutle Khan *Kheta Khan *Mame Khan *Seema Mishra *Prakash Mali * Satkeer *Chotu Singh Rawna *Anupriya Lakhawat *Hemraj Goyal *Dapu Khan *Ila Arun *

External links#

The Modern Endangered Archives Program Recordings of Hereditary Musicians of Western Rajasthan collection is available through the UCLA Library.
Monograph on Langas: a folk musician caste of Rajasthan. by Komal Kothari. 1960.
Folk musical instruments of Rajasthan: a folio, by Komal Kothari. Rajasthan Institute of Folklore, 1977.
Bards, ballads and boundaries: an ethnographic atlas of music traditions in West Rajasthan, by Daniel Neuman, Shubha Chaudhuri, Komal Kothari. Seagull, 2007. .

Music of Tamil Nadu

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Ancient music#

The tradition of Tamil music goes back to the earliest period of Tamil history. Many poems of the Sangam literature, the classical Tamil literature of the early common era, were set to music. There are various references to this ancient musical tradition found in the ancient Sangam books such as Ettuthokai and Pathupattu. The early narrative poem Silappatikaram, belonging to the post-Sangam period also mentions various forms of music practiced by the Tamil people. Music was also utilised in the compositions of the Tamil Saiva saints such as Appar, Thirugnana Sambanthar and Manikkavasagar during the Hindu revival period between the sixth and the tenth centuries CE. The musical poet (sandakkavi) Arunagirinathar further embellished the Tamil musical tradition through his compositions of Tamil hymns known as Thiruppugazh.

Music of West Bengal

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Ragapradhan Gaan#

Bengali classical music is based on modes called ragas. In composing these songs, the melodies of North Indian ragas are used. As far as the Charyagiti (9th century), ragas have been used in Bengali music. Jaydev’s Gita Govinda, Padavali Kirtan, Mangal Giti, Shyama sangeet, Tappa, Brahma Sangeet and Tagore songs have been inspired by Ragas. The use of North Indian ragas in Bangla songs began in 18th century. This trend gathered momentum during the 19th and 20th centuries. The pioneers of these trend were Ramnidhi Gupta of North Kolkata, Kali Mirza of Hooghly, Raghunath Roy and the founder of the Bishnupur Gharana, Pandit Ramshanker Bhattacharya of Bankura. Nawab of Lucknow, Wajid Ali Shah played an important role in this trend. He was dethroned by the British Empire in 1856 and banished to Metiaburuz, Kolkata in present-day West Bengal. During his 30-year exile, he patronized music, specially dhrupad, tappa, thumri and kheyal. And, thus made a lasting impact on Bengali music. All traditional Bengali music tend to be based on various variations of Hindustani classical music. Rabindranath Tagore had a deep appreciation for north Indian ragas, successfully introduced ragas in his songs. He was followed by Dwijendralal Ray, Rajanikanta Sen and Atulprasad Sen.

Navajo music

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Traditional#

Traditional Navajo music is always vocal, with most instruments (which include drums, rattles, rasp, flute, whistle, and bullroarer) used to accompany singing of specific types of song. As of 1982 there were over 1,000 ceremonial practitioners qualified to perform one or more of thirty ceremonials and countless shorter prayer rituals, otherwise known as ‘Medicine People’, which restore which holds the semantic field of ‘harmonious condition’ and ‘beauty’, good health, serenity, and balance. These songs are the most sacred holy songs, the “complex and comprehensive” spiritual literature of the Navajo, may be considered classical music, while all other songs, including personal, patriotic, daily work, recreation, jokes, and less sacred ceremonial songs, may be considered popular music. The “popular” side is characterized by public performance while the holy songs are preserved of their sacredness by reserving it only for ceremonies (and thus not featured on the recording listed at bottom). The longest ceremonies may last up to ten days and nights while performing rituals that restore the balance between good and evil, or positive and negative forces. The , aided by sandpaintings or masked , as well as numerous other sacred tools used for healing, chant the sacred songs to call upon the Navajo gods and natural forces to restore the person to harmony and balance within the context of the world forces. In ceremonies involving sandpaintings, the person to be supernaturally assisted, the patient, becomes the protagonist, identifying with the gods of the Diné creation stories, and at one point becomes part of the story cycle by sitting on a sandpainting with iconography pertaining to the specific story and deities. The lyrics, which may last over an hour and are usually sung in groups, contain narrative epics including the beginning of the world, phenomenology, morality, and other lessons. Longer songs are divided into two or four balanced parts and feature an alternation of chantlike verses and buoyant melodically active choruses concluded by a refrain in the style and including lyrics of the chorus. Lyrics, songs, groups, and topics include cyclic: Changing Woman, an immortal figure in the Navajo traditions, is born in the spring, grows to adolescence in the summer, becomes an adult in the autumn, and then an old lady in the winter, repeating the life cycles over and over. Her sons, the Hero Twins, Monster Slayer and Born-for-the-Water, are also sung about, for they rid the world of giants and evil monsters. Stories such as these are spoken of during these sacred ceremonies. The “popular” music resembles the highly active melodic motion of the choruses, featuring wide intervallic leaps and melodic range usually an octave to octave and a half. Structurally, the songs are created from the complex repetition, division, and combinations of most often no more than four or five phrases, with short songs often immediately following each other for continuity as needed in work songs. Their lyrics are mostly vocables, with certain vocables specific to genres, but may contain short humorous or satirical texts.

Nazrul Geeti

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Background#

Nazrul showed signs of keen poetic and musical talent at a young age and started writing songs when he was a member of a Leto group (folk musical group). Following Kazi Bazle Karim, his uncle and a leader of a Leto group, he became an expert in composing songs and setting them to tunes. Joining the Leto group enhanced his musical career and significantly impacted the shaping of his future musical life. At a very young age he was excelled in composing songs in different languages, apart from the Bengali language. He met Satish Kanjilal, a teacher of Searsol School who had an interest in classical music and some mastery over it. Observing Nazrul’s irresistible inclination to music, Mr. Kanjilal imparted him some lessons on classical music. Later Nazrul widened his knowledge on music when he was serving as a Havilder in Karachi Barrack under Bengal Regiment. He learned a great deal of Persian language, literature, and music with the help of a religious teacher from Punjab attached with the regiment.

Nepalese rock

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

The history of rock music in Nepal dates back to the 1970s when there were a few acts influenced by Western bands such as The Beatles, the Rolling Stones, The Doors, Jimi Hendrix, and later Led Zeppelin, The Who, the Grateful Dead, Pink Floyd, Iron Maiden, Deep Purple and Bob Marley. Bands in Kathmandu consisted mostly of local people from Kathmandu (capital of Nepal and famous hippie destination during 1970s), who got close with the hippies around the world to the extent that guitars and records were bought from them. Prism, who formed in 1976, was one of the earlier bands to start playing English songs. The members of Prism are still active playing either in other bands or in hotels and restaurants, and they still reunite sometimes as “Prism” to play on some special occasions. Most of the bands did not record any of the originals during the 70s and 80s but recording culture gradually started to change with bands such as The Influence and Crossroads. These bands introduced pop-rock elements to the Nepali music scene. Both bands released a few albums and were very popular at the time. These records were monumental in encouraging bands to record their own original material. After these bands came other bands such as The Peace, The Crisis, The Move, Metal Cross and Zenith. They also went on to produce their own records. There was a change in the direction of the music that the newer bands were making, and the stage was set for the bands and artists to record and perform their original compositions. Newaz is considered to be the first hard-rock band and released their debut album in 1991. This was shortly followed by Cobweb releasing their debut album called Anjaan in 1993. They are still active and releasing albums, although they are mostly confined to pub concerts. A few years later in 1996, Milestone, a band from Pokhara, released their debut album - Milestone. The album contained eight tracks, six of which were rock ballads but the other two Adhuro Prem and Mayalu were on the heavier side with a lot of guitar distortions, sweeping solos and screaming vocals. Music video for Adhuro Prem was also aired on limited Nepali television channels at the time. That type of music was unheard in the mainstream music industry and hence the track nor the album was fortunate enough to make a break in the industry. In the late 1990s, a few songs from the band Drishty (formed by Iman B. Shah while he was in the US) hit the FM airwaves on a few rock shows. While in the US, Drishty recorded two albums in the bedroom studio set up by Iman B. Shah, but none of the albums were formally released. Mukti and Revival, which consisted one of the most senior rock and blues musicians, also released Kalanki Ko Jam in 2000. In the same period, Robin n Looza: also made it big in the rock scene. There were, of course, already many other regulars as well as “one gig” bands that were doing metal covers live. During the early and mid 1990s, a few Iron Maiden songs and Diamond Head’s “Am I Evil?” were concert staples. Almost every hard rock show would have those two songs played by at least one band. Many such bands have never been documented. Ugra Karma’s release of the demo Himalayan Metal of Death in 2000 can be cited as the first Death Metal release by a Nepali band. Ugra Karma went on to release a full-length album named Blood Metal Initiation in 2001. This marks the beginning of Extreme Metal music in Nepal and Ugra Karma is regarded as the pioneering initiators of the underground Metal subculture in South Asia. The emergence of BMI Studios (otherwise known as Sacred Soundz) was an important event in the history of Metal in Nepal. The owner/engineer Iman B. Shah (Guitarist – Drishty and formerly of Vegetarian Vampires) was a ‘metalhead’ himself and was familiar with capturing the essence of metal - heavy riffs, thundering drums, thumping bass and deafening vocals – in the recording studio. Out of the few albums/songs that were ever recorded by local bands at that time, most of them like Ugrakarma’s “Himalayan Metal of Death”, “Blood Metal Initiation” and Albatross’ “Hi : Fly” were done at BMI/Sacred Soundz. The existence of a ‘metal’ recording studio opened up a lot of avenues for future bands trying to cut a record or a demo. Following the release of Ugra Karma’s full-length album ‘Blood Metal Initiation’ in 2001, there were a horde of bands in the valley playing quite a range of metal music. An indie rock scene had also emerged, with punk bands like Rai Ko Ris (www.raikoris.com), with singer and bass player Sareena Rai, leading the way to a nascent DIY movement. Several band contests, where an original was mandatory to compete, also fueled the new bands to seek the creativity within them and come up with something imperative. While such contests more than often yielded nine pop bands for every metal band, it still was a very significant step forward. More gigs were being organized, and more bands emerged. But the difference between these gigs and the gigs five years ago was monumental – these new bands were playing their own songs. One of those bands was Refused 13 from Nakhipot, Lalitpur. The band had played their first gig opening for Dead Soul (on Metallica Anthology Concert, 2001). The band started creating a formidable reputation in the valley as a very “tight” metal band with an in-your-face attitude, conceived by many as the band to pick metal where Dead Soul had left and then elevate the scene into another level. During the band’s active years, the band organized another memorable gig “Keep Suffering” at Nakhipot. Anuraag Pokhrel, former vocalist of Albatross on the band says, “Refused 13 was definitely a force - the band and the persona of the band. I still remember that when they would walk into a concert, I would try to look at them without getting caught, because they were Refused13 and they looked like hardcore badasses that would kill you if you looked at them wrong”. Formed in late 2001, Nastik became the new leader among the metal bands, solely because of the use of growling vocals (aided by the fact that even though Ugrakarma is the first death metal band, they really never performed live). Nastik released a self-titled demo album in 2002, which featured “Maukil” – a fan favorite song in concerts. Nastik then released Judge Death – an all-out death metal album in 2003. However, as in many other cases, the album was never released officially but fans had their own ways to get their hands on the album. Third World Chaos’s four song EP Inferno was released in 2003 which is significant in the terms that it introduced hardcore influenced metal into Kathmandu’s scene. During the active days, TWC performed regularly in concerts with Nastik and X-mantra and helped the scene to become stronger. The release of X-mantra’s debut album Crying for Peace in 2003 hit the underground metal scene like a tsunami and created an astonishing aftermath. Their “No Cover Songs in Gigs” code created an astounding impact among other active bands in the scene. Several bands started performing originals who gradually realized that performing decent originals was more important than doing any magnificent cover songs. “Shalik” and “Chidiya Ghar” became new anthems in the metal concerts. In simple words, X-mantra did it. What Cobweb stood for the mainstream rock scene in Nepal, X-mantra proudly stood for the metal and underground scene in Nepal. Anuraag Pokhrel (ex-Albatross): “Even though the album “Crying for Peace” is 50% crap and the band eventually lost it, the other half of the album that does work is too well-done and too innovative to ignore. I think “Crying for Peace” paved the way for a more noise-receptive audience than there would have been otherwise.” Until their philosophical demise and in an attempt to garner commercial limelight by changing the direction, X-mantra’s first two albums (the second one being Kurshi, 2004) set a standard in the Nepali Metal history – proving that it was possible to fuse aggression in the almost poetic styled Nepali lyrics with riff based groovy metal. The same year saw the recording of a song titled “Itihaas” by Maya. With a melodic death/black metal style riffing and strong lyrics, Maya had an admirable influence on the next generation of black metal bands like Cruentus and Antim Grahan. The same year, members of Nastik and Albatross also joined forces as Abattoir and recorded a self-titled album before disbanding. At the end of 2004, bands like Ugra Karma, Nastik, TWC, Albatross, Refused 13 and X-mantra were either inactive, had disbanded or had moved away from the underground scene. By 2005, a new wave of bands such as Cruentus, Antim Grahan, Muga:, Brutal, Holocaust, and Breeding Pestilence started to bring new and innovative stuff into the scene. And later, bands like Epitaph, Morgoth and Vhumi forged new styles into the scene. Cruentus started as a metal cover band playing generally Sepultura on concerts. Their choice of music gradually shifted towards black metal and eventually Cruentus started covering Immortal, Amon Amarth, Graveworm and so on. The band started to perform originals and started to gain a huge sense of respect in the underground community as one of the most tightest live bands in Ktm. They recorded their EP Massacre of the Holy Ones in 2004 and later in 2005, recorded a full-length album, Asantusta Aatma – another milestone in the history of Nepali metal. Ashantusta Aatma featured rawness and aggression of black metal with a touch of death metal and the title song became a new anthem in the metal concerts. At the end of 2005 The Lakhey (First Newa Metal Band) recorded their first Newa Metal song Dhampa Tacha. Individually, Antim Grahan’s band members were just a bunch of average musicians, however as a band, their live performance was tight. The release of EP Forever Winter in the early 2005 was a bold testimony of their brand of symphonic black metal. Without wasting much time just after three months, Antim Grahan released their full-length album Tales of the Darkened Woods. Recorded and mixed in the Sacred Soundz, the album was able to capture the atmosphere and aggression of black metal. These two albums were very popular because of their melodic lines. Holocaust was a pure death metal outfit while Breeding Pestilence introduced somewhat technical death metal to the scene. At the same time, Blood Blisters were creating a strong following within the Lalitpur area. Blood Blisters started out as a cover band playing Iron Maiden exclusively. The band also participated in several band competitions - increasing their popularity - and inspiring some new bands in Patan like Morceous, Metalbox and Bequeath. 2006 saw the formation of progressive rock band Atomic Bush. Formed by the members of Breeding Pestilence, Ozzobozo and Elysium – Atomic Bush propelled the scene into a new and interesting frontier of progressive, virtuoso and eclectic rock. They had recorded an album called P Jam. The year 2007 was a great year for local underground as well with the releases of Barbaric Regulation (Epitaph) and The Last Verse of Madness (Morgoth/Lost Oblivion). A thrash/death band called 72hrs, formed by members of Ugra Karma and Refused 13 also released an EP, “Kunike”. When it comes to rock and heavy metal bands in Pokhara, it goes far back to the early 1990s when there were bands like Vagabond and Anamnesis. These bands mostly covered Jimi Hendrix, Black Sabbath, UFO, Deep Purple, Iron Maiden, and Metallica to name few. These two bands are believed to have set the heavy metal scene in Pokhara. Vagabond also released an album with Music Nepal. Vivax and Milestone were also notable names from the Pokhara scene. Bands such as Grease and Numskull who are credited for starting grunge/punk movement. Anorak started the melodic punk in the scene.

New Mexico music

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Origins#

The musical history of New Mexico goes back to pre-colonial times, but the sounds that define New Mexico music begin particularly with the ancestral Puebloans. Their music survived in the traditional songs of the Pueblo people with wind instruments such as the Anasazi flute, as well as the chants and drum beats of the Navajo and Apache. In Santa Fe de Nuevo México, the Hispanos of New Mexico brought Christian liturgical music, the violin, and the Spanish guitar, and Mexico brought with it the traditions of mariachi and ranchera. After New Mexico became a territory, the people of the American frontier brought the traditions of country and Cajun music. This was when the first forms of New Mexico music began to be played. Western was an adaption of country and Cajun, accompanied by traditionally Mexican and Native American instruments. New Mexico music is distinguished by its bouncy and steady rhythm, while accompanied by instruments common in Pueblo music, Western, Norteño, Apache music, country, mariachi, and Navajo music. Country and western music lend their drum and/or guitar style sections, while the steadiness of the rhythm owes its origins to the music of the Apache, Navajo, and Pueblo. And the differing rates of that tempo comes from the three common ranchera rhythm speeds, the polka at 2/4 (ranchera polkeada), the waltz at 3/4 (ranchera valseada), and/or the bolero at 4/4 (bolero ranchero). After statehood, the music was sung at parties and in homes as traditional folk music, and New Mexico music grew in popularity with native New Mexicans, mostly with the Pueblo, Navajo, Apache, Neomexicanos, and the descendants of the American frontier. Musicians in the genre received prominent airtime on KANW, and international recognition on the syndicated Val De La O Show.

Newar music

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Traditional music#

Traditional music refers to the music from the 16th century during the rule of King Mahendra Malla to the first decade of the 20th century. Traditional songs consist of hymns that describe various deities, songs about love and marriage, ballads, rice transplantation and historical songs in the form of narratives. The traditional musicians worship the Newar god of music and dance Nasah Dyah. Traditional Newar music has been arranged into a particular schedule. One of the dominant forms of traditional Newar music is Dapha music. Dapha music is classical Newar music that probably originated during late Lichhavi period and flourished in the Malla period. Basically, the songs of Dapha music are devotional songs based on classical ragas. Dapha music is played by bands known as Dapha Khalah that may be associated with traditional groups called Guthi. According to the ragas, certain songs are played at certain seasons or times of the day. The songs generally narrate or depict the mood of a particular season. Besides the seasonal and scheduled ragas, various ragas are played during specific events, such as Deepak raga (played when a monarch passes away). Seasons, their festivals and music accompanying them are as follows The schedule of different ragas played by Dapa on different times of day are as follows-

Odissi music

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Ritual music of Jagannatha Temple#

Odissi music is intimately and inextricably associated with the Jagannatha temple of Puri, where it is a ritual service to the deity. The deity of Jagannatha is at the heart of Odisha’s culture, and Odissi music was originally the music offered as a sevā or service to Jagannatha. Every night during the Badasinghara or the last ritual of the deity, the Gitagovinda of Jayadeva is sung, set to traditional Odissi ragas & talas. This tradition has continued unbroken since the time of Jayadeva, who himself used to sing in the temple. After the time of the poet, the singing of the Gitagovinda according to the authentic Odissi ragas & talas was instated as a mandatory sevā at the temple, to be performed by the Maharis or Devadasis, systematically recorded in inscriptions, the Mādalā Pānji and other official documents that describe the functioning of the temple. To this date, the Jagannatha temple remains the fountainhead of Odissi music and the most ancient & authentic compositions (including a few archaic Odia chhandas and jananas by Jayadeva himself) survive in the temple tradition, although the Devadasis are no more found owing to their systematic eradication by the British government.

Oppari

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Content and theme#

The songs do not follow a set pattern; rather, the lyrics are sung impromptu, mostly improvised, and eulogise the person who has died. The oppari is also often centred around the relatives of the deceased and stresses the nature of the blood relation (mother, father, brother, sister etc.) between the person and the deceased. The oppari singer sings, wails and beats her chest and accompanied to the sounds of a beating drum she helps mourners bring their buried grief to the surface. A sample theme of a daughter lamenting father’s death is described below: Opparis are rich in wordplay relating to names and events associated with the deceased person. Colourful local idioms also decorate the lyrics. While oppari singing is still prominent in rural Tamil Nadu, the tradition had almost died out in urban Tamil Nadu.

Pakistani hip-hop

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

The contemporary hip-hop and rap movement in Pakistan emerged from globalization of American hip hop in the early 1990s. Some Pakistani artists began experimenting with rap and hip hop as early as 1993. In particular, the rise in popularity of Eminem in the late 1990s and 50 Cent in the early 2000s influenced many of today’s hip hop artists in Pakistan such as Party Wrecker (Mustafa Khan) of the Pashto rap group Fortitude, as well as Qzer (Qasim Naqvi) and DirtJaw. The song “Pani da Bulbula” by classical singer Yaqoob Atif Bulbula, released in 1979 is commonly acknowledged as the first song in Pakistan to feature desi Punjabi rap. The singer Fakhar-e-Alam later released first ever commercial Pakistani rap album Rap Up in 1993 featuring single “Bhangra Pao”, a fusion of bhangra and rap music which became a major headliner on Pakistani music charts. The hit 1995 song “Billo De Ghar” by Abrar-ul-Haq also featured rapping. Hip hop and rap culture in Pakistan during the 1990s and early 2000s were mainly centered around those with a good grasp of English (a socioeconomically privileged group). Pakistani hip hop and rap artists at this time were mainly underground English acts and were dismissed by the media and mainstream as “Eminem ki aolad” (Eminem’s children) and “yo-bache” (yo-kids).

Pakistani rock

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

New wave of music (1980–1989)#

Rock music in Pakistan began in the 1980s with the arrival of cassettes by Western rock music groups such as Pink Floyd, Led Zeppelin, Deep Purple and Van Halen. The genre began rooted in the ultraconservative regime of President Zia-ul-Haq who had denounced the Western culture and put forwarded the program of Islamized transformation of the country. In mid-1985, Western-influenced rock music began to be noticed by the public, and underground concerts were held all over the country. The quick success of the music jolted the country in a time when the traditionalist President General Zia-ul-Haq was reigning. These political and economic tensions and pretensions, heavy metal, rock music power plays, and the economic prosperity also propelled the gradual expansion of the country’s urban-middle and lower-middle classes. The rock music bands and trios came to be perceived by many Pakistani fans and country’s cultural observers as a “promising new era of cultural revival”. In the 1980s, rock bands including the Strings, The Barbarians, The Final Cut, Jupiters, Junoon, and Vital Signs gained a lot of public appraisal and popularity. The public opinion was generally positive and welcomed the bands for their uniqueness.

Powada

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Powada during Maratha Empire#

The composer-cum-singers of the powadas are known as Shahirs. The professional Powada singers formed a guild or caste called the Gondhalis. The earliest notable powada was The Killing of Afzal Khan (अफझल खानाचा वध) by Agnidas, which recorded Shivaji’s encounter with Afzal Khan. The next notable powada was Tanaji Malusare (तानाजी मालुसरे ) by Tulsidas, which gave an account of the capture of Sinhagad Fort by Tanaji. Another notable contemporary powada was Baji Pasalkar (बाजी पासलकर ) by Yamaji Bhaskar. They are also mentioned in the 13th century Marathi scripture Dnyaneshwari. During the Maratha Confederacy rule, several celebrated Shahir poet-singers, which include Ram Joshi (1762–1812), Anant Phandi (1744–1819), Honaji Bala (1754–1844) and Prabhakar (1769–1843) also composed powadas.

Qawwali

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Terminology#

Qawl (Arabic: قَوْل) means ‘utterance (of the Muhammad)’. A Qawwāl is someone who often repeats or sings a Qawl. Qawwali is the music that a Qawwāl sings. Origins The Delhi Sultanate’s Sufi saint Amir Khusrow of the Chisti order of Sufis is credited with fusing the Persian, Arabic, Turkic, and Indian traditions in the late 13th century in India to create Qawwali as we know it today. The word sama is often still used in Central Asia and Turkey to refer to forms very similar to Qawwali, and in India, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Bangladesh, the formal name used for a session of Qawwali is Mehfil-e-Sama. The gradual development of Qawwali was significantly influenced by the Hindu Krishna Bhakti movement, which popularized devotional music in Medieval India. Historically, Sufi Qawwalis and Bhakti songs shared themes of longing and the personal journey towards God, with the Sufi concept of ishq (love) mirroring the Bhakti idea of viraha. Sufi poet Amir Khusrau composed Krishna-inspired poetry which influenced Sufi music. Originally, musical instrument use in Qawwali was prohibited. The following conditions were initially placed on Qawwali: Sufi Saints such as Nizamuddin Auliya, the teacher of the famous Sufi singer Amir Khusrow, were quite blunt about the prohibition: Eventually, however, musical instrument use found its way into Qawwali. Instruments such as the harmonium, tabla and dholak are now common in many Qawwali parties.

Rabindra Sangeet

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

The name Rabindra Sangeet was first introduced by the noted Indian author, economist and sociologist Dhurjati Prasad Mukherjee in the anthology Jayanti Utsarga, published on 27 December 1931, to commemorate Tagore’s 70th birthday. Rabindra Sangeet merges fluidly into Tagore’s literature, most of which—poems or parts of novels, stories, or plays alike—were lyricised. Influenced by the thumri style of Hindustani music, they ran the entire gamut of human emotion, ranging from his early dirge-like Brahmo devotional hymns to quasi-erotic compositions. They emulated the tonal color of classical ragas to varying extents. Some songs mimicked a given raga’s melody and rhythm faithfully; others newly blended elements of different ragas. Yet about nine-tenths of his work was not bhanga gaan, the body of tunes revamped with “fresh value” from select Western, Hindustani, Bengali folk and other regional flavours “external” to Tagore’s own ancestral culture. In fact, Tagore drew influence from sources as diverse as traditional Hindusthani Thumri (“O Miya Bejanewale”) to Scottish ballads (“Purano Shei Diner Kotha” from “Auld Lang Syne”). Scholars have attempted to gauge the emotive force and range of Hindustani ragas: Tagore influenced sitar maestro Vilayat Khan and sarodiyas Buddhadev Dasgupta and Amjad Ali Khan. His songs are widely popular and undergird the Bengali ethos to an extent perhaps rivalling Shakespeare’s impact on the English-speaking world. It is said that his songs are the outcome of five centuries of Bengali literary churning and communal yearning. Dhan Gopal Mukerji has said that these songs transcend the mundane to the aesthetic and express all ranges and categories of human emotion. The poet gave voice to all—big or small, rich or poor. The poor Ganges boatman and the rich landlord air their emotions in them. They birthed a distinctive school of music whose practitioners can be fiercely traditional: novel interpretations have drawn severe censure in both West Bengal and Bangladesh. For Bengalis, the songs’ appeal, stemming from the combination of emotive strength and beauty described as surpassing even Tagore’s poetry, was such that the Modern Review observed that " t here is in Bengal no cultured home where Rabindranath’s songs are not sung or at least attempted to be sung … Even illiterate villagers sing his songs". A. H. Fox Strangways of The Observer introduced non-Bengalis to rabindrasangit in The Music of Hindostan, calling it a “vehicle of a personality … that go behind this or that system of music to that beauty of sound which all systems put out their hands to seize.” In 1971, Amar Shonar Bangla became the national anthem of Bangladesh. It was written—ironically—to protest the 1905 Partition of Bengal along communal lines: lopping Muslim-majority East Bengal from Hindu-dominated West Bengal was to avert a regional bloodbath. Tagore saw the partition as a ploy to upend the independence movement, and he aimed to rekindle Bengali unity and tar communalism. Jana Gana Mana was written in shadhu-bhasha, a Sanskritised register of Bengali, and is the first of five stanzas of a Brahmo hymn that Tagore composed. It was first sung in 1911 at a Calcutta session of the Indian National Congress, and was adopted in 1950 by the Constituent Assembly of the Republic of India as its national anthem.

Raga rock

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Definition#

Ragas are specific melodic modes used in the classical music of the Indian subcontinent. The term “raga rock” originated in March 1966 as a description of rock music that featured Indian sitar styling. According to musicologist Jonathan Bellman, citing Lillian Roxon’s 1969 book Rock Encyclopedia: “This catchphrase eventually came to describe any Rock song that evoked an Indian or general Oriental mood, whether by use of sitar or another instrument imitating it.” Music journalist Rob Chapman says the phrase was a “catch-all term” and “something of a misnomer”, since it was often applied to any piece of rock music that “used non-European instrumentation or music styles to denote its exotic qualities”. A major influence on raga rock was the music of Bengali sitarist Ravi Shankar. He himself became a pop music icon in 1966, following the rise of the raga rock trend. Rock’s use of elements from the Indian classical tradition included: * sitar (usually serving the role of an electric guitar) * drone, provided by tambura in raga performances and by Indian harmonium in vocal pieces * modal melodies based on Indian scales * vocal stylings * additive, rather than divisive, rhythms (tal) * question-and-answer interplay (jawab-sawal) between lead instruments * lead instruments mirroring the vocal line * lyrical themes related to mysticism or religious symbolism. Don Snowden of The Los Angeles Times acknowledges the 1960s raga rock movement, as well as Santana’s mix of blues rock and Afro-Cuban percussion later in the decade, as parts of a broader phenomenon that would come to be known as worldbeat in the 1980s.

Ramprasadi

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Influence#

Ramprasad Sen was the first shakta poet to address Kali with such as intimate devotion and to sing of her as a tender loving mother or even as a little girl. He is credited with creating a new compositional form that combined the Bengali folk style of Baul music with classical melodies and kirtan. After him, a school of shakta poets continued the Kali-bhakti tradition. Krishna Chandra Roy, Siraj ud-Daulah, Rabindranath Tagore, Kazi Nazrul Islam were immensely inspired by the songs of Ramprasad. Many of his songs were sung by famous Shyama sangeet singers like Dhananjay Bhattacharya, Pannalal Bhattacharya and Anup Ghoshal.

Rampur–Sahaswan gharana

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

History#

The gharana finds its origins in Mehboob Khan, the chief khayal singer in the royal court of Rampur State (in present Uttar Pradesh), his tradition was followed by his son Inayat Hussain Khan (1849–1919) and in turn by Inyat’s brothers-in-law, Haider Khan (1857–1927), Ustad Fida Hussain Khan and Padma Bhushan Ustad Mushtaq Hussain Khan (1878–1964; first recipient of the Padma Bhushan Award), thus all the singers were connected with each other, and the gharana was named after their ancestral place, Sahaswan, in present Badaun district. Amongst the most famous and relevant vocalists of the Gharana are Mushtaq Hussain Khan, Nisar Hussain Khan, Ghulam Mustafa Khan, Ghulam Sadiq Khan and Rashid Khan.

Rasiya

Mon, 01 Jan 0001 00:00:00 +0000

Characteristics#

Rasiyas are characterised by a frequent use of a set of stock melodies which are used equally throughout the genre. Modern Rasiyas contain erotic lyrics and euphemisms while traditional Rasiyas are devotional portrayals of Radha and Krishna. They are most commonly sung in informal song meetings by members of the rural community in the Braj region of Uttar Pradesh. There are different variants and styles of rasiya’s, and villagers will sing their own respective regional variants during their local festivities. During the Holi season, rasiyas are widely performed in temples. Rasiyas tend to encompass a traditional set of themes, however, the range of topics that the songs can be based on within the genre is limitless. Author Peter Manuel has argued that “to some extent, rasiya is distinguished by its characteristic melodies, styles, and contexts rather than text content, and is thus able to accommodate any sort of text topic”.

Rigsar

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History#

Rigsar’s popularity grew steadily in the 1970s, when the genre’s modern form developed; Dasho Thinley, a schoolteacher and composer, performed a song called Dorozam which was very influential. his 1986 Ngesem Ngesem was also very popular, and was the first to use keyboards. By the end of the 1980s rigsar was declining in popularity until the arrival of Norling Drayang, a very popular and prolific record label which has released more than 130 albums. Norling’s breakthrough release was the album Pangi Shawa, which set the stage for future developments. In the early 1990s, the rigsar industry grew considerably as Drayang repopularized the genre, adding more electronic elements. Modern rigsar recordings often use electronic approximations of drums and guitars. Suresh Moktan released an album, New Waves, in 1996 that is the highest-grossing Bhutanese album in sales. However, he has now begun criticizing rigsar as unmusical. Others dislike the genre because it is repetitive, simple and generally a copy of Indian popular songs, or because rigsar is not influenced by traditional Bhutanese music.

Sadra (music)

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Rhythmic Structure#

Compositions that exist in specific meters (tala) are classified as Sadra. The primary talas used include: * Teevra taal (7 beats) * Sool taal (10 beats) * Chau taal (12 beats) * Jhaptal (10 beats) - the most commonly used tala for Sadra performances The rhythmic complexity of Sadra incorporates layakari (rhythmic play) derived from Dhrupad tradition, making it distinctive among Hindustani vocal forms.

Musical Style#

Sadra represents a synthesis of classical vocal traditions. It combines the dignified bol baat (syllabic articulation) characteristic of Dhrupad with the melodic ornamentation and taan (rapid melodic passages) and sargam (solfa singing) found in Khyal. This unique combination gives Sadra a distinctive identity within the spectrum of Hindustani classical music forms. The compositional structure typically includes: * Sthayi - the initial section set in the lower and middle octaves * Antara - the second section exploring higher octaves * Elaborate rhythmic variations and improvisation

Sanedo

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History#

The original pronunciation and word is snehdo (), derived from the word sneh (), meaning love or affection. Sanedo contains couplets of four lines and has a striking resemblance to bhavai, a folk drama form from Gujarat. Gujarati folk artist Arvind Barot performed Sanedo on stage in the 1980s and deserves credit for bringing it to the mainstream. However, it was another Gujarati folk artist, Maniraj Barot, who made Sanedo widely popular among Gujaratis, and it is now commonly played during Navratri and at many wedding celebrations. A Sanedo topic can be anything from romance or youth to satire. Sanedo originated from the villages of the Patan district in Gujarat and it has become a very popular dance all over Gujarat and also among the Gujarati speaking population in other parts of India, United States, Australia, Canada and Britain. It is frequently played during the festival of Navratri, wedding celebrations and parties. The music played in the background during a Sanedo recital is from a musical instrument called daklu. It is similar in shape to a damaru but is considerably larger.

Sangeet Natak

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The beginning#

Vishnudas Bhave is considered the founder of Marathi theater. In 1843, his group staged the first public performance of Marathi play Seeta Swayamvar (सीता स्वयं‍वर). The integration of music in the dramas took place quite late in 1879 when play writer and producer Trilokekar presented his musical play Nal-Damayanti (नल-दमयंती). It was the first musical play on Marathi stage. But only when Balwant Pandurang Kirloskar (popularly known as Annasaheb Kirloskar) staged his first musical play Shaakuntal, based on Kalidas’s play Abhijñānaśākuntalam, on October 31, 1880 in Pune did the trend of Sangeet Natak really start. Kirloskar included 209 musical pieces in his Shaakuntal of 7 acts. They consisted of a mix of Hindustani and Carnatic classical music, and lighter music. During its early period, Sangeet natak was dominated by religious plays like Sangeet Saubhdra, which is legend in Marathi sangeet natak. The trend changed with coming of sangeet Manapman, which depicts bravery of its hero Dheryadhar and his love with Bhamini which was written by Krushnaji Prabhakar Khadilkar.

Sawani

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Regional significance#

The genre is traditionally sung in the villages and towns of Uttar Pradesh, particularly around Banaras, Mirzapur, Mathura, and Allahabad, as well as in the Saran and Bhojpur regions of Bihar. This geographical spread corresponds with the Bhojpuri-speaking belt, where folk music traditions have been preserved and transmitted through generations.

Musical characteristics#

As a semi-classical genre, Sawani shares musical characteristics with other forms of Hindustani classical music. Like its companion seasonal songs, it can be adorned with elements from classical ragas and can incorporate styles such as Thumri and Bhairavi. The songs are typically performed in informal, community settings rather than formal concert halls, maintaining their folk character while displaying classical influences.

Semi-classical music

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Historical background#

After the Indian Rebellion of 1857 or sometimes also called the First war of independence from the British rule, most Mughal court musicians moved from Delhi to the relative peace and safety of smaller towns after the failure of the 1857 rebellion.

Thumri and Dadra#

In those smaller towns, a new musical movement gained momentum which sought relaxation from the structural limitations of the khayal form of music to allow singers to express themselves with lighter music. This new trend resulted in the development of two closely related music genres, the thumri and the dadra. After the independence of Pakistan in 1947, this musical heritage and many of the musicians shifted to Pakistan. Thumri and dadra have been and still are popular among contemporary classical vocalists in Pakistan.

Shyama Sangeet

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Origin#

During the 12th-13th centuries when Shaktism grew in Bengal, it inspired a number of poets to compose poems on Kali. Mukundarāma, known as Kavikaṅkaṇ or ‘gem of poets, ’ wrote his chief poem, the epic Chaṇḍī, in 1589. Towards the middle of the 18th century, the poet Ramprasad Sen instilled new life into it and turned it into a distinct genre of Bengali songs. Ramprasad was succeeded by number of composers like Kamlakanta Bhattacharya (1772–1821), Maharaja Harendra Narayan (1783-1839), Maharaja Shivendra Narayan (1839-1847), Rasikchandra Ray (1820–1893), Ramchandra Datta (1861–1899), Nilakantha Mukhopadhyaya (1842–1911) and Bhaba Pagla (1902–1984). In modern times both Rabindranath Tagore and Kazi Nazrul Islam have composed poems of Shyama Sangeet genre. The term ‘Shyama’ refers to the skin color of Kali (usually depicted in black or dark blue).

Sindhi music

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Sindhi folk genres or singing styles#

Besides Sindhi folk genres of Bait, Wae and Kafi other Sindhi folk genres include; * Lada/Sehra/Geech: in this genre folk songs are song for special days and occasions like weddings, engagements, birth of a child etc, Sehra and Lada are genre of expressing emotions like joy, happiness, sadness etc, it is sung by females in a group, with various Sindhi folk musical instruments like dhul, Thali, kanjiri, ghungro etc. * Dhammal: this is a folk style of singing as well as a folk religious dance, the folk instruments like Nagara, Shernai, gharyal, gughu etc are played. * Dohiraa * Bhagat * Kalaam * Classical * Molood: is a Sindhi form of poetry about Prophet Muhammad’s life, with poems consisting of between five and ten verses. Mauluds are sung in a group of men in unique high and low voices. * Moro: this folk style of singing is usually played in mountainous region of Sindh in Kohistan by the locals. * Hamarcho: this is harvesting folk songs, sung by farmers, their families, friends, neighbours and relatives who come together and sing Hamarcho in a group, one person leading while others sing together when crops grow. * Osara/Paar: this is style of singing for mourning for loved ones, in which the close relatives of the dead would weep while singing in sad style the phrases generally are the memories, praises and remembrance of the dead. * Doro: this folk style of singing is performed by women of Thar desert region of Sindh. Today other modern genres are also being introduced.

Sioux music

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Singers#

Predominate traditional singers and groups and their corresponding tribes or nations include; * Earl Bullhead, Lakota * Porcupine Singers, Lakota * Tianna Spotted Thunder, Lakota * Lakota Thunder, Lakota * James Iron Shell, Lakota * Fort Peck Sioux, Fort Peck Assiniboine and Sioux * Elk Soldier, Dakota * Red Leaf Singers, Lakota * Common Man Singers, Lakota * Bad Nation, Dakota and Lakota * Crazy Horse Singers, Lakota * White Bull, Lakota * Chiniki Lake Singers, Nakota

Sufi music

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Musicians#

Abida Parveen, a Pakistani Sufi singer is one of the foremost exponents of Sufi music, considered the finest Sufi vocalists of the modern era. Sanam Marvi, another Pakistani singer has recently gained recognition for her Sufi vocal performances. Asrar Shah a Lahore based Sufi singer who gained popularity in Coke Studio Pakistan and now is owner of his music producing company Soul Speaks. A. R. Rahman, the Oscar-winning Indian musician, has several compositions which draw inspiration from the Sufi genre; examples are the filmi qawwalis Piya Haji Ali in the film Fiza, Khwaja Mere Khwaja in the film Jodhaa Akbar, Arziyan in the film Delhi 6, Kun Faya Kun in the film Rockstar and Maula Wa Salim in the film O Kadhal Kanmani. He has performed many Sufi concerts in The Sufi Rout at Delhi. He performed Light Upon Light in Dubai with Sami Yusuf. Bengali singer Lalan Fakir and Bangladesh’s national poet Kazi Nazrul Islam scored several Sufi songs. Junoon, a band from Pakistan, created the genre of Sufi rock/Sufi Folk Rock by combining elements of modern hard rock and traditional folk music with Sufi poetry. In 2005, Rabbi Shergill released a Sufi rock song called “Bulla Ki Jaana,” which became a chart-topper in India and Pakistan. Madonna, on her 1994 record Bedtime Stories, sings a song called “Bedtime Story” that discusses achieving a high unconsciousness level. The video for the song shows an ecstatic Sufi ritual with many dervishes dancing, Arabic calligraphy and some other Sufi elements. In her 1998 song “Bittersweet”, she recites Rumi’s poem by the same name. In her 2001 Drowned World Tour, Madonna sang the song “Secret” showing rituals from many religions, including a Sufi dance. Singer/songwriter Loreena McKennitt’s record The Mask and Mirror (1994) has a song called “The Mystic’s Dream” that is influenced by Sufi music and poetry. The band mewithoutYou has made references to Sufi parables, including the name of their album It’s All Crazy! It’s All False! It’s All a Dream! It’s Alright (2009). Tori Amos makes a reference to Sufis in her song “Cruel”. Mercan Dede is a Turkish composer who incorporates Sufism into his music and performances. Shohreh Moavenian is an Iranian singer who sings Rumi’s poems. She has produced two albums by the title “Molana & Shora 1 and 2” in which she incorporates elements of pop and traditional Persian music.

Sufi rock

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History#

It is mostly based on the poetry of famous sufi poets such as Rumi, Hafez, Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai, Bulleh Shah, Waris Shah and even Kabir and is mostly sung in languages such as Urdu, Pashto, Punjabi, Sindhi, Persian and Turkish.

External links#

*The New Sufiana – Indian Express

Sugama Sangeetha

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Origin and development#

It is unclear when exactly Bhavageethe started but in 1920s and 30s there were many attempts to set tunes to poetry. By the 1950s it started taking a more defined shape and a highly talented musicianP. Kalinga Rao was instrumental in spreading this art form. He set tunes to the poems of many famous Navodaya poets, and gave performances on All India Radio as well as public gatherings. The art form started gaining popularity through his rendering of Udayavaagali Namma Cheluvu Kannada Naadu, Yaaru Hitavaru Ninage, Anathadim Digantadim, Baarayya Beladingale, Brahma Ninge Jodistheeni etc., He laid the foundation of Sugama Sangeetha and hence is considered to be the father of this form. The 60s and 70s saw many emerging musicians contributing to this field. H.R.Leelavathi, Padmacharan, H. K. Narayana in South Karnataka and Balappa Hukkeri in North Karnataka played a significant role in popularising the art across Karnataka. They also contributed to the field through their own compositions. The next major personality in the field was Mysore Ananthaswamy. Till then, though there were a lot of compositions, they remained as more or less a subset of classical music from the musical perspective. It was Ananthaswamy who could think out of the box. He not only crossed the barrier of classical music, but was instrumental in adding its own subtleties to Bhaavageethe. With instrumentation also taking different shape by that time, he introduced a number of changes to orchestration. By that time, Bhavageethe was quite popular and businessmen began to publish it in cassette form. With that, ‘Nithyotsava’ became the first Bhavageethe album to be released. There were a lot of popular albums to his credit. ‘Nithyotsava’, ‘Bhava Sangama’, ‘Minchu’, ‘Rathnana Padagalu’ to mention a few. Another young and dynamic talent emerged in the 70s: C. Aswath. Highly talented and a great visionary, his way of blending the lyrical and musical dynamics was hard to match. His way of rendering a song, with emphasis on lyrical dynamics and word power was distinctive. He also brought about a number of changes to the art. Dramatic elements, virtual picturization and other innovations could be observed in abundance in his compositions. He was instrumental in making Shishunala Sharif’s poems popular across Karnataka. His popular albums are ‘Mysooru Mallige’, ‘Shishunala Sharif Sahebara Geethegalu’, ‘Chaitra’, ‘Kannadave Satya’ etc., P.Kalinga Rao, Mysore Ananthaswamy and C.Aswath are considered to be the trinity of Sugama Sangeetha. The mid 70s to mid 90s were probably the golden age since, in this period, the major exponents Ananthaswamy and Aswath were at the peak of their careers. The art form had matured enough to be considered an independent genre, and it started adding its own theories through experiments, while commercialisation due to increasing popularity and subsequent dilution of the art had not yet started.

Tamang Selo

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Hira Devi Waiba, pioneer of Nepali folk songs and Tamang Selo#

Hira Devi Waiba is hailed as the pioneer of Nepali folk songs and Tamang Selo. Her song “Chura ta Hoina Astura” (Nepali: चुरा त होइन अस्तुरा) is said to be the first Tamang Selo ever recorded. Waiba has sung nearly 300 songs in a career spanning 40 years. Waiba’s children Navneet Aditya Waiba and Satya Aditya Waiba have carried the legacy further by continuing on her footsteps.

Tappa

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History#

Tappa originated from the folk songs of the camel riders in Punjab. The tappa style of music was refined and introduced to the imperial court of the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah, and later by Mian Ghulam Nabi Shori or Shori Mian, a court singer of Asaf-Ud-Dowlah, Nawab of Awadh. In Bengal, Ramnidhi Gupta, Shibangshu De & Kalidas Chattopadhyay composed Bengali tappa and they are called Nidhu Babu’s Tappa. Tappa gayaki took new shape and over decades became puratani, a semi-classical form of Bengali songs. Tappa, as a significant genre in Bengali musical styles, reached levels of excellence in lyrics and rendition (gayaki), arguably unmatched in other parts of India. Hugely popular in the latter half of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th, tappa was the genre of choice of the wealthy elite as well as the classes with more modest means. An evolved format of the tappa was the baithaki style, which evolved under the direct patronage of the landed elites of the zamindari classes of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, in their baithak-khanas (literally, baithak - assembly, khana - halls or salons) and jalsaghar (literally, halls for entertainment, mujra or nautch halls) Composers of repute included Bidyasundar, Roopchaand Pakkhi, Dadathakur, and Hiralal Sarkhel. Unfortunately, tappa being mainly a vocal tradition, a lot of priceless material from the body of art has been lost in the passage of time. Many celebrated artists died before recordings of music became common. What is left today is mainly handed down from the generations by oral traditions as well as some written matter, occasionally turned up in the course of research. Ramkumar Chattopadhyay was perhaps the most significant vocal proponent in recent times, of the tappa style in Bengal, renowned for his semi-humorous and majorly artistic renditions and his comical incorporation of English into the Bengali lyrics, either his own translations or his anecdotal translations based on prior sources, ostensibly for the ‘comprehension’ of the British ‘sahibs’ in the British Raj era, but containing many subversive and sarcastic tones in the English transliterations, clearly against the Imperial regime, but subtly put, so as not to arouse the suspicion of the strict and (usually) sensitive colonial government and invite charges of sedition. (e.g. Let me go, ohe dwari, tumi kader kuler bou (humorously translated by him as “Madam, whose family you belong to…”).

Thumri

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Structure#

As in khayal, thumri has two parts, the sthayi and the antara. It favours talas such as Deepchandi, Roopak, Addha, and Punjabi. These tala-s are characterized by a special lilt, nearly absent in the tala-s used in khayal. Thumri compositions are mostly in ragas such as Kafi, Khamaj, Jogiya, Bhairavi, Pilu and Pahadi. A common feature of these and other such ragas is the free movement they allow the artist, since they do not depend for their identity on rigidly formulated tonal sequences, irrespective of the compositions involved. In fact, one may say that they have a built-in provision for mixing ragas or for moving out of the nominal raga to add color to the proceedings.

Vedic chant

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Tones#

Vedic chantings use 4 tones – (middle tone), (lower tone), (higher tone) and (high tone extended). These are usually marked with intuitive marks – an underline for (), a small vertical line above the letter for () and two vertical lines for ().

Pathas#

The various pathas or recitation styles are designed to allow the complete and perfect memorization of the text and its pronunciation, including the Vedic pitch accent. Eleven such ways of reciting the Vedas were designed – Samhita, Pada, Krama, Jata, Maalaa, Sikha, Rekha, Dhwaja, Danda, Rathaa, Ghana, of which Ghana is usually considered the most difficult. The students are first taught to memorize the Vedas using simpler methods like continuous recitation (samhitapatha), word by word recitation (pada patha) in which compounds (sandhi) are dissolved and krama patha (words are arranged in the pattern of ab bc cd …); before teaching them the eight complex recitation styles. A pathin is a scholar who has mastered the pathas. Thus, a ghanapaathin has learnt the chanting of the scripture up to the advanced stage of ghana. The Ghanapatha or the “Bell” mode of chanting is so called because the words are repeated back and forth in a bell shape. The sonority natural to Vedic chanting is enhanced in Ghana. In Jatapatha, the words are braided together, so to speak, and recited back and forth. The samhita, pada and krama pathas can be described as the natural recitation styles or prakrutipathas. The remaining eight modes of chanting are classified as complex recitation styles or Vikrutipathas as they involve reversing of the word order. The backward chanting of words does not alter the meanings in the Vedic (Sanskrit) language.

Yuman music

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Singing#

The songs are sung in particular cycles. Among Mohave people, a cycle could consist of 50–200 songs. Together thirty song cycles exists, all of which were initially dreamed by singers. A complete song cycle took an entire night to perform, which would be accompanied by gourd rattles or beating on baskets.

Instruments#

While singing is the focus of Yuman music, it can be accompanied by rattles, which can be made of gourd or tin cans.

South Asia on Music Theory Print

Abhang

Practise#

Agra gharana

Etymology#

Classical era#

Ancient Tamil music

Sangam music#

Asian Underground

History#

Baila music

History#

Baithak Gana

Instruments#

Bandish

Etymology#

Sections#

Bangladeshi heavy metal

Antecedents: 1960s (Blues rock)#

Bangladeshi rock

Origins#

Baul

Etymology#

History#

Bengali Rock music (India)

Origin (1960s–1970s)#

Bhajan

Etymology#

Historical roots#

Bhangra (music)

Origins#

Bhatiali

See also#

Bhavageete

Kannada Bhavageete#

Bhawaiya

Etymology#

Bhojpuri music

History#

Biraha

History#

Borgeet

Lyrics#

Carnatic music

Origin and history#

Chaiti

Origin and cultural context#

Dapha music

History#

Dappankuthu

Musical instruments#

Deuda (genre)

Etymology and history#

Dhrupad

History#

Dhumpa sangita

Creation#

Dhumpa#

Dohori

See also#

Filmi pop

See also#

External links#

Filmi qawwali

Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan#

Filmi-ghazal

History#

Folk music of Punjab

Rhythm#

Melody#

Folk songs#

Folkhop

Gaana

History#

Garba (dance)

Etymology#

Dance, music and symbolism#

Geet (song)

Context#

Ghazal