Chords & Harmony
Cadence
In Western musical theory, a cadence () is the end of a phrase in which the melody or harmony creates a sense of full or partial resolution, especially in music of the 16th century onwards. A
Also known as: Cadence (music), Perfect cadence, Deceptive cadence, Half cadence
Common classifications#
Cadences are divided into four main types, according to their harmonic progression: authentic (typically perfect authentic or imperfect authentic), half, plagal, and deceptive. Typically, phrases end on authentic or half cadences, and the terms plagal and deceptive refer to motion that avoids or follows a phrase-ending cadence. Each cadence can be described using the Roman numeral system of naming chords. Authentic cadence An authentic cadence is a cadence from a dominant-functioning chord (commonly V) to the tonic chord (I). During the dominant chord, a seventh above the dominant may be added to create a dominant seventh chord (V 7 ); other dominant-functioning chords such as a leading tone triad or seventh chord can also take its place. The dominant chord may also be preceded by a cadential chord. The Harvard Concise Dictionary of Music and Musicians says, “This cadence is a microcosm of the tonal system, and is the most direct means of establishing a pitch as tonic. It is virtually obligatory as the final structural cadence of a tonal work.” Authentic cadences are generally classified as either perfect or imperfect. The phrase perfect cadence is sometimes used as a synonym for authentic cadence but can also have a more precise meaning depending on the chord voicing.
Perfect authentic cadence#
In a perfect authentic cadence (PAC), the chords are in root position – that is, the roots of both chords are in the bass – and the tonic is in the highest voice of the final chord. This is generally considered the strongest type of cadence and often found at structurally defining moments. Music theorist William Caplin writes that the perfect authentic cadence “achieves complete harmonic and melodic closure.”
Imperfect authentic cadence#
There are three types of imperfect authentic cadences (IAC): *Root position IAC (shown below): Similar to a perfect authentic cadence, but the highest voice is not the tonic. *Inverted IAC: Similar to a perfect authentic cadence, but one or both chords are inverted. *Leading-tone IAC: The penultimate (V) chord is replaced with a chord based on the leading-tone (vii o chord). Note that in many recent theories (William Caplin’s Theory of Formal Functions, Janet Schmalfeldt’s “Becoming,” and James Hepokoski and Warren Darcy’s Sonata Theory, the latter two categories of IAC are categorized as non-cadential (see evaded cadence, below).
Evaded cadence#
An evaded cadence (a subtype of the inverted IAC) moves from a dominant seventh third inversion chord (V) to a first inversion tonic chord (I). Because the seventh of the dominant chord must fall stepwise to the third of the tonic chord, it forces the cadence to resolve to the less stable first inversion chord. To achieve this, a root position V usually changes to a V right before resolution, thereby “evading” the root-position I chord that would usually follow a root-position V. (See also inverted cadence below.)
Half cadence#
A half cadence (also called an imperfect cadence or semicadence) is any cadence ending on V, whether preceded by II (V of V), ii, vi, IV, or I—or any other chord. Because it sounds incomplete or suspended, the half cadence is considered a weak cadence that calls for continuation. Several types of half cadences are described below.
Phrygian half cadence#
A Phrygian half cadence is a half cadence iv 6 –V in minor, so named because the semitonal motion in the bass (sixth degree to fifth degree) resembles the half-step heard in the ii–I of the 15th-century cadence in the Phrygian mode. Due to its being a survival from modal Renaissance harmony this cadence gives an archaic sound, especially when preceded by v (v–iv 6 –V). A characteristic gesture in Baroque music, the Phrygian cadence often concluded a slow movement immediately followed (“attacca”) by a faster one.
Lydian cadence#
A Lydian cadence is similar to the Phrygian half cadence, involving iv 6 –V in the minor. The difference is that in the Lydian cadence, the whole iv 6 is raised by a half step. In other words, the Phrygian half cadence begins with the first chord built on scale degree , while the Lydian half cadence is built on the scale degree .
Burgundian cadences#
Burgundian cadences became popular in Burgundian music. Note the parallel fourths between the upper voices.
Plagal half cadence#
The rare plagal half cadence involves a I–IV progression. Like an authentic cadence (V–I), the plagal half cadence involves an ascending fourth (or, by inversion, a descending fifth). The plagal half cadence is a weak cadence, ordinarily at the ending of an antecedent phrase, after which a consequent phrase commences. One example of this use is in “Auld Lang Syne”. But in one very unusual occurrence – the end of the exposition of the first movement of Johannes Brahms’s Clarinet Trio, Op. 114—it is used to complete not just a musical phrase but an entire section of a movement.
Plagal cadence#
A plagal cadence is a cadence from IV to I. It is also known as the Amen cadence because of its frequent setting to the text “Amen” in hymns. William Caplin disputes the existence of plagal cadences in music of the classical era, although they begin to appear in the nineteenth century: The plagal cadence may be interpreted as I–V if the IV–I cadence is perceived as a modulation in which the IV chord becomes the I chord of the new tonic key and the I chord of the previous key is now a dominant chord in the modulated key. (Cf. §Half cadence above and Secondary dominant.)
Minor plagal cadence#
A minor plagal cadence, also known as a perfect plagal cadence, uses the minor iv instead of a major IV. With a very similar voice leading to a perfect cadence, the minor plagal cadence is a strong resolution to the tonic.
Moravian cadence#
The Moravian cadence, which can be found in the works of Leoš Janáček and Bohuslav Martinů amongst others, is a form of plagal cadence in which the outer notes of the first chord each move inwards by a tone to the second. (IV add6 → I 6 ). An early suggestion of the Moravian cadence in classical music occurs in Antonín Dvořák’s New World Symphony.
Deceptive cadence#
Also known as an interrupted or false cadence, the deceptive cadence is a cadence from V to any chord other than the tonic (I), usually the submediant (VI). This is the most important irregular resolution, most commonly V 7 –vi (or V 7 –VI) in major or V 7 –VI in minor. This is considered a weak cadence because of the “hanging” (suspended) feeling it invokes. At the beginning of the final movement of Gustav Mahler’s 9th Symphony, the listener hears a string of many deceptive cadences progressing from V to IV 6 . One of the most striking uses of this cadence is in the A-minor section at the end of the exposition in the first movement of Johannes Brahms’s Third Symphony. The music progresses to an implied E minor dominant (B 7 ) with a rapid chromatic scale upwards but suddenly sidesteps to C major. The same device is used again in the recapitulation; on that occasion the sidestep is—as one would expect—to F major, the tonic key of the whole Symphony. The interrupted cadence is also frequently used in popular music. For example, the Pink Floyd song “Bring the Boys Back Home” ends with such a cadence (at approximately 0:45–50).
Inverted cadence#
An inverted cadence (also called a medial cadence) inverts the last chord. It may be restricted only to the perfect and imperfect cadence, or only to the perfect cadence, or it may apply to cadences of all types. To distinguish them from this form, the other, more common forms of cadences listed above are known as radical cadences.
Rhythmic classifications#
Cadences can also be classified by their rhythmic position: * A metrically accented cadence has its final note in a metrically strong position, typically the downbeat of a measure. * A metrically unaccented cadence has its final note in a metrically weak position, for instance, after a long appoggiatura. Metrically accented cadences are considered stronger and are generally of greater structural significance. In the past, the terms masculine and feminine were sometimes used to describe rhythmically “strong” or “weak” cadences, but these terms have not been generally used since at least the mid-1980s. Susan McClary has written extensively on the gendered terminology of music and music theory in her book Feminine Endings. The example below shows a metrically unaccented cadence (IV–V–I). The final chord is postponed to fall on a weak beat.
Picardy third#
A Picardy third (or Picardy cadence) is a harmonic device that originated in Western music in the Renaissance era. It refers to the use of a major chord of the tonic at the end of a musical section that is either modal or in a minor key. The example below shows a picardy third in the final chord, from J.S. Bach’s Jesu, meine Freude (Jesus, My Joy), mm. 12–13.
Upper leading-tone cadence#
This example from a well-known 16th-century lamentation shows a cadence that appears to imply the use of an upper leading-tone, a debate over which was documented in Rome c. 1540. The final three written notes in the upper voice are printed B–C–D, in which case the customary trill on the second to last note should be played using D and C. However, convention implied that the written C should be played as a C in this context, and a cadential trill of a whole tone on the second to last note would then require a D/E, the upper leading-tone of D. Presumably, the debate was over whether to use D–C or D–C for the trill.